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The Structure and Measurement of Intelligence
Abstract
One of psychology's outstanding successes has been the measurement of intelligence, and the demonstration that differences in intelligence, so measured, were due in large part of genetic factors. In recent years much work has been done to clarify the problem of the biological basis of these inherited differences, and work on the evoked potential in the EEG has generated important new findings in this field. We now know far more about intelligence, its inheritance, and its biological basis than we did even a few years ago.
... The negative effect of anxiety on intellectual functioning is believed to originate from the working memory system. That is, high-anxiety individuals engage in significantly more task-irrelevant processing (worry) than low-anxiety individuals (Eysenck, 1979). Support for this claim was provided by Leon and Revelle (1985) who reported a deleterious effect of state anxiety on cognitive ability performance, and by Sarason (1980), who reported that state anxiety can impair intellectual functioning in a variety of contexts, from IQ test scores to school achievement. ...
... Vulnerability that are related to g. It has been suggested that Anxiety causes the working memory system to function inefficiently; due to task irrelevant processing such as worrying (Eysenck, 1979). Indeed the present findings are in line with previous research that has found Anxiety to impair intellectual functioning in several contexts (Sarason, 1980;Hembree, 1988). ...
... It has been proposed that the relationship between N and intelligence is mediated by anxiety (Sarason, 1980;Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985;Zeidner & Matthews, 2000). This is because Neurotic individuals experience higher levels of test (state) anxiety, and anxiety causes individuals to engage in significantly more task-irrelevant processing (worry), which interferes with their performance (Eysenck, 1979). This implies that N is actually more systematically related to intelligence test performance than to intelligence per se. ...
This thesis concerns the interface of intelligence and personality. It contains six Chapters and eleven independent but related studies. Chapter 1 is a review of the literature in this area. This presents the major models of personality and intelligence, the findings on the interface of the two constructs, and the major findings on how both are related to occupational performance. Chapter 2 consists of two studies, investigating the empirical links between g and the Big 5 personality traits. Results indicate positive links of g with Openness, and negative links with Neuroticism, Conscientiousness and Extraversion. Chapter 3 consists of three studies, which further investigate the major findings of Chapter 2, proposing explanations on how the observed relationships may have developed. Study 3 indicated that the relationship between Neuroticism and intelligence is mediated by state anxiety. Study 4 attested to a link between gf and Openness, indicating that it does not exclusively correlate with gc. Studies 4 and 5 revealed that Conscientiousness is more highly correlated with gf than with gc, which along with the sub-factor level analysis of Conscientiousness, indicated that gf may affect its development. Chapter 4 consists of three studies, investigating the relationship between intelligence and personality measures commonly used in occupational settings. Results indicated that similar patterns of results emerge irrespective of the inventories used, which can be linked to the Big 5 correlates of intelligence, thus attesting to the robustness of the relationship between intelligence and personality. Chapter 5 consists of three studies, investigating the relationship of intelligence and personality with job performance. Results revealed a link between intelligence and simulated and self-rated job performance, but not with salary or managerial level. Job performance was positively linked with measures of Conscientiousness, Extraversion and Agreeableness and negatively linked with measures of Neuroticism and Openness, though results were not consistent across measures of job performance. Chapter 6 presents a summary of the findings of the thesis, discussing their implications and their contribution to the current literature. This Chapter also considers the limitations of the conducted studies, suggesting ideas for future research.
... Лєві й інші) вивчають вроджені властивості мозку (задатки), що визначають інтелектуальність людини. ВІКОВА ТА ПЕДАГОГІЧНА ПСИХОЛОГІЯ Г. Айзенк назвав їх сукупність «біологічним інтелектом» [4]. Прихильники психогенетичного підходу (С. ...
... Дослідниками-когнітивістами здійснено вивчення стійких ментальних структур, а також інтелектуальних процесів, які дозволяють людині приймати, переробляти та зберігати інформацію [7]. На їхню думку, можливості інтелекту залежать насамперед від швидкості переробки інформації, а «гарний» інтелект -це «швидкий інтелект» [4]. Однак розуміння інтелекту, яке абсолютизує його швидкісні характеристики, є деякою мірою обмеженим, оскільки ментальна швидкість може по-різному впливати на успішність інтелектуальної праці. ...
... Researchers have stubbornly continued to try to fnd g, that certain something that is genetic-a "gift. " Another factor analytic theorizer, Eysenck (1985), said there are three intelligences: Intelligence A, which is "the biological substratum of all cognitive behaviour, giving rise to individual diferences of a largely or entirely genetic nature"; Intelligence B, which is "the application of this ability in everyday life, " which is infuenced by environment, culture, and personality; and Intelligence C, which is "the IQ measurement of intelligence, " the attempt to come close to A and to predict B (p. 118). Nevertheless, g has been found to be related to "job performance, skill testing, reference checks, class rank or grade-point average, experience, interview, education, and interest measures" (Miller, 1999, p. 350). ...
... Rapidity of mental processing. Early theories of intelligence in the late 19th and early 20th centuries postulated that people who were intelligent were those who processed information more rapidly (Eysenck, 1985;Vernon, 1987). Jaušovec (2000) and others from Slovenia have found that, indeed, students with high g do process information more rapidly. ...
... Како је модерном сликом свијета секуларизовано вријеме постало отворени простор прогреса као епохалног и интенционалног усмјерења рационалних пројеката егзистенције, унутар тако испражњеног телоса времена историјска акумулација неусидреног рационалитета појавила се као постмодерно искуство краја повијести. 45 Постмодерно искуство флуидног страха пред имплозијом цивилизацијског нивоа стварности (финансијских, нуклеарних, еколошких, социјалних, био-хемијских, безбједносних, медицинских, хуманитарних и других ризика), 46 показало је да се криза раста техничког свијета и рационализованог друштва мора сагледати у корелацији са кризом колонизоване личности и заједнице, јер је укидањем заједнице и личности као комуникативних основа социјалне егзистенције, модерна укинула искуствену основу репродукције смисла, солидарности и стваралаштва -једном ријечју аутентични симболички капитал свијета живота, чиме је a priori извршена негација стабилних структура социјалне егзистенције и доведен у питање сам појам социјалног темеља кроз трајно укидање могућности социјалне, културне и биолошке репродукције. Отуда, постмодерно искуство времена, материјализујући кризу нововјековног субјекта као кризу (идеје) друштва, објелодањује да ескалација кризе хуманизма, коју је изњедрио инструментални рационализам модерне, није криза личности. ...
... Исто, стр. 51.45 Копривица, Ч., Будућност страха и наде, Арт принт, Бања Лука, 2011. ...
... Како је модерном сликом свијета секуларизовано вријеме постало отворени простор прогреса као епохалног и интенционалног усмјерења рационалних пројеката егзистенције, унутар тако испражњеног телоса времена историјска акумулација неусидреног рационалитета појавила се као постмодерно искуство краја повијести. 45 Постмодерно искуство флуидног страха пред имплозијом цивилизацијског нивоа стварности (финансијских, нуклеарних, еколошких, социјалних, био-хемијских, безбједносних, медицинских, хуманитарних и других ризика), 46 показало је да се криза раста техничког свијета и рационализованог друштва мора сагледати у корелацији са кризом колонизоване личности и заједнице, јер је укидањем заједнице и личности као комуникативних основа социјалне егзистенције, модерна укинула искуствену основу репродукције смисла, солидарности и стваралаштва -једном ријечју аутентични симболички капитал свијета живота, чиме је a priori извршена негација стабилних структура социјалне егзистенције и доведен у питање сам појам социјалног темеља кроз трајно укидање могућности социјалне, културне и биолошке репродукције. Отуда, постмодерно искуство времена, материјализујући кризу нововјековног субјекта као кризу (идеје) друштва, објелодањује да ескалација кризе хуманизма, коју је изњедрио инструментални рационализам модерне, није криза личности. ...
... Исто, стр. 51.45 Копривица, Ч., Будућност страха и наде, Арт принт, Бања Лука, 2011. ...
... fear of failure) make it difficult for neurotic individuals to focus on their task (De Raad & Schowenburg, 1996). Particularly the working memory system would be affected by worry (task-irrelevant processing) components (Eysenck, 1979; see also Darke, 1988). It is noteworthy that the impairment of performance by worry may be significantly enhanced when pressure is involved (Morris & Liebert, 1969;Matthews, 1986 As Strelau, Zawadski and Piotrowske (2001) explained, individuals who complete an ability test are usually presented with difficult tasks, exposed to the judgement of others, and affected by the consequences of their performance. ...
... conceptualised three types (or approaches to the measurement) of intelligence, namely genotypic, psychometric and self/other-assessed intelligence. These three types of intelligence or "dimensions of the structure of intellect" (Eysenck, 1979; see also Strelau et al, 2001) can be differentiated on the basis of their assessment methods. ...
This thesis concerns the relationship between personality traits and intellectual competence. It contains five chapters and ten independent but related empirical studies. Chapter one presents a review of the salient literature in the area. It is divided into three sub-sections: personality and psychometric intelligence, personality and academic performance (AP), and personality and subjectively-assessed intelligence (SAI). Chapter two (studies 1 to 4) examines the relationship between the Big Five personality traits with several psychometric intelligence tests, SAI, and gender. Results indicated that personality traits (notably Neuroticism and Agreeableness) are significantly related to SAI, but not to psychometric intelligence. Since SAI is also significantly related to psychometric intelligence, it is suggested that SAI may mediate the relationship between personality and psychometric intelligence. Chapter three (studies 5 to 8) examines the relationship between psychometric intelligence and personality (the Big Five and the Gigantic Three) with AP. Results indicate that personality traits (notably Conscientiousness and Psychoticism) are significant predictors of AP, accounting for unique variance in AP even when psychometric intelligence and academic behaviour are considered as predictors. Chapter four (studies 9 and 10) looks at the relationship between personality and psychometric intelligence with a measure of art judgement as well as several indicators of previous art experience. Results indicate that art judgement is related to both personality and intelligence, and may therefore be considered a mixed construct. Chapter five presents a brief summary of the results and conclusions.
... In the past decades, different models of intelligence were progressively published, e.g., Spearman's two-factor theory of intelligence, Guilford's three-dimensional structure of intellect, Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence, Eysenck's theory of intelligence. Thus and consequently, there were several different tests of intelligence, to name the most notable examples: the Snijders-Oomen nonverbal test, the Amthauer test, the Wechsler tests, tests Army alpha and Army beta, the Raven's progressive matrices test, the Stanford-Binet test [51]. Evidently, it appears that the recent component of intelligence should be replaced by a newer concept vested in a new indicator named as mathematical intelligence [52,53]. ...
... These pupils are also able to internalize ample intricacies of logic and mathematical reasoning [56], particularly, in the field of geometry and algebra, thus they feature sole geometrical imagination and well-developed ability to recognize the patterns as such [57], whether in the field of algebra or geometry, so, it seems to be the promising factor influencing the pupils' ability to solve mathematical problems. Our previous findings [51] indicate that functional thinking and perception of infinity are just the two aspects particularly involved in the successful solution of mathematical problems. Mathematical intelligence is defined here as a specific sensitivity to the following six specific phenomena: causality, patterns, existence and uniqueness of solution, geometric imagination, functional thinking, and perception of infinity ( Figure 1). ...
Metacognitive knowledge and mathematical intelligence were tested in a group of 280 pupils of grade 7 age 12–13 years in the Czech Republic. Metacognitive knowledge was tested by the tool MAESTRA5-6+. Mathematical intelligence is understood as an important criterion of a learner’s ability to solve mathematical problems and defined as the specific sensitivity to the six particular phenomena: causality, patterns, existence and uniqueness of solution, geometric imagination, functional thinking, and perception of infinity. The main objective of the research is to explore relationships and links between metacognitive knowledge and mathematical intelligence of the learners and discover the scope of impacts of their metacognitive knowledge on the school success rate. Based on the collected answers and nearly zero correlation (r = 0.016) between the researched domains, a two-dimensional model considering the correlations between metacognitive knowledge and mathematical intelligence was designed. The developed model enables to describe an impact of the domains on the learner’s school performance within the selected school subjects, and concurrently, it emphasizes their importance within the educational practice as such.
... The tradition is also distinctive for its leaders' sophistication in conceptualizing and measuring human traits, as well as their acumen in formulating and testing hypotheses. Eysenck (1979), for instance, was well versed in both psychometrics and the philosophy of science, and was especially adept at making novel predictions and designing incisive experiments that could falsify a favored hypothesis, his or others'. ...
... Nor did Spearman or any other any g theorist of the Galtonian tradition believe that it could. Indeed, when Hans Eysenck returned to the topic of intelligence in the late 1960s, 2 he argued (Eysenck, 1979) that factor analysis had nothing more to contribute to understanding g. He also complained that psychometrics had become focused on the technology of testing and showed scant interest in the constructs tests actually measures. ...
... За Г. Айзенком [8], важливо диференціювати поняття «біологічний інтелект», «психометричний інтелект» і «соціальний інтелект». Біологічний інтелект є фізіологічним і біохімічним підґрунтям усвідомлюваної й індивідуальної пізнавальної поведінки кожної людини. ...
В статті подано результати вивчення генези проблеми інтелекту. Інтелект – генетично детермінована здатність особистості виконувати різні пізнавальні й соціальні завдання, пристосовуватися до умов соціуму, набувати досвід. Рівень інтелекту є результатом вимірювання відчуттів людини за допомогою тестів сенсорних відмінностей, її здатностей до розуміння, міркувань, суджень, ментального досвіду (тестологічний підхід). Інтелект особистості трактується за допомогою одного (генерального) чи багатьох різних факторів, що пов’язані з такими розумовими і пізнавальними здібностями, які дозволяють їй успішно вирішувати тести щодо інтелектуальної діяльності (факторно-аналітичний підхід). Інтелект пов’язаний зі свідомістю і знаннями особистості. Рівень інтелекту засвідчує її здатність швидко змінити структуру образу пізнання для глибшого розуміння суттєвих ознак проблемних ситуацій і їхнього ефективного вирішення. Чинники інтелектуального розвитку – здатність особистості несподівано і досить швидко встановлювати суттєві ознаки різних проблемних ситуацій, що потребують невідкладного вирішення, та рівень організованості системи знань (феноменологічний підхід). Інтелект є універсальним способом урівноваження людини з вимогами довкілля (її адаптації), що залежить від наявних у неї знань і сформованих когнітивних операцій. Функцією інтелекту є удосконалення адаптації людини до фізичного і соціального середовища, що засвідчує її гнучкість і стійкість пристосування до його умов. Чинниками розвитку операційних структур інтелекту є її взаємодії з довкіллям, інтегрованість операційних структур й об’єктивація образів пізнання (генетичний підхід). Психологічними механізмами розвитку інтелекту є характеристики особистості – мотивація, операційні смисли, цілепокладання, емоційна активність (процесуально-діяльнісний підхід). Інтелект розвивається в процесі засвоєння різних форм інтелектуальної поведінки в ситуаціях взаємодії особистості з довкіллям. Інтелект є «базовим поведінковим репертуаром» особистості (освітній підхід).
... The data analysis was obtained using the Office Excel program, with which the graphs of the processed data were made. The questionnaires applied were the VAL-ED that allows obtaining the values present in the student and the Personality Questionnaire-AB Forms (Eysenck, 1973), used individually, with a duration of 15 minutes, where the sociability of the individual is sought based on the personality. The questionnaires were applied in the facilities of the Faculty, with prior authorization and informed consent in writing from the participating students. ...
... Natural factors, in many ways, affect creativity, for example -genetics or different species. Creativity can be inherited, but Eysenck (1979) found that blood relatives differed in creativity. Cole (1979) reported that a significant factor is an environment, in which children grew up, which can make the creativity of each child different. ...
Background The creative development of packaging design, using the STEAM teaching method and combined with Guilford (1950)'s creative design, was synthesized into a teaching model named "CREATE." Each stage of the model included learning management, following the STEAM Education ideas (Yakman & Lee, 2012) that integrated science, technology, engineering, mathematics and arts links in each step. The principles of Structural Packaging and Creating Packaging with this system enabled students to design packaging with an imaginative form, an exotic shape, which required bending and deforming at various angles. The integrated design technique, allowed designers to develop a large variety of shapes. For packaging, this developed the ability for design in the long-term. Methods The population consisted of 120 second-year students of the Industrial Craft Design Program at Thammasat University, Thailand. We used purposive selection to sample 30 subjects. In the experiment, we used these tools: 1) CREATE model for teaching in the subject of "Creative Packaging Design" 2) Lesson Plan 3) Test of Creative Thinking. Data was collected three times-before studying (Pretest: 1), after studying (Posttest: 2) and in a follow-up phase (Follow up: 3)-to study the effects of creativity with repeated measure ANOVA. Results The mean of the repeated measurements for the creative score of packaging design from the ANOVA multivariate test was significantly less than the target significance level (p<0.05). This showed that the independent variable (i.e., the practice score from using our STEAM method) affected the dependent variable (i.e., the score assigned for creativity in the student assignment) submitted in the Packaging Design course. The posttest (Posttest: 2) scores were significantly higher than the pretest scores (p<0.05) and the scores two weeks after graduation (Follow up: 3) were also higher than the pretest scores (p<0.05). Thus, retention of the key ideas taught in the course, was high. Furthermore, the posttest and follow up phase scores were not significantly different, thus confirming good retention. Conclusions We studied creativity in packaging design of students using our CREATE Model for teaching in computer graphic design courses. Each step of the teaching model applied STEAM Education for students to use the concepts in a scientific process, combined with the theory of packaging design. Key aspects of our approach were the exchange of ideas among students, the activities designed to encourage creativity and generally enjoying 'thinking outside the box'. so that learners strengthened their ability to design creative packaging, could develop packaging designs in a variety of formats and retain learned concepts.
... Psychologists (Eysenck, 1973;Heim, 1975, etc.) have devised tasks which sample the specified behavioural domain of defined intelligence. Subjects' performance is compared with the performance of thier age group and the scores expressed in either the percentile rank system or as an IQ score. ...
A collection of original contributions to Piagetian research in India.
CONTENTS
1. Introduction to Piaget's Theory of Intellectual Development
Paul A. S. Ghuman
2. A Cross Cultural Review of Researches Based on Piagetion Model
Paul A. S. Ghuman and Pierre Dasen 11
3. Study of Discrimination and Numeration Operations in Young Children
S. Narayana Rao 42
4. Culture, Schooling and Cognition: Cognitive Development of Tribal and Non-tribal schoo!ed Indian Children.
A. Srikanta Dash and Rama Das 58
5. Fostering Cognitive Development m First Standard Pupils
T. Padmini 90
6. Conceptual Development ofPunjabi Children: A Review·
Paul A. S. Ghuman 120
7. Invariance of Mass and Number Among Tribal Children
Durganand Sinha and Tantreshwar Jha 130
8. Cognitive Performance of Selected Children in North India on some Piagetian Tasks
Violet Kalyan Masih 149
9. Development of Concept of Speed in Indian Children Eco Cultural Context
Updesh K. Bevli 179
10. Concept of Speed: A Training Study
Updesh K. Bevli 197
11. A Developmental Study of the Transition from a Percep- tual to a Conceptual Mode of Cognitive Functioning
T.S. Saraswathy and Keerty Sawhney 224
12. A Short term Moral Judgement in India
T.S. Saraswaty and Jayanti Sundaresan 237
13. Performance in Piagetian Tasks and Cognitive Develop- ment in Adolscence
S. C. Jain 249
14. Summaries and Conclusions
Updesh K. Bevli 262
... Što se tiče dimenzija neuroticizam -emocionalna stabilnost, istraživanja pokazuju da više izražen neuroticizam otežava učenicima ostvarivanje uspeha ( Osim toga, zabeležena je prediktivna moć neuroticizma, odnosno supfaktora anksioznosti i vulnerabilnosti u odnosu na faktor opšte inteligecnije. Autori pretpostavljaju da anksioznost dovodi do neefikasnosti radne memorije, usled različitih procesa koji nisu značajni za konkretni zadatak, kao što je recimo briga (Eysenck, 1979, prema Moutafi, Furnham & Crump, 2003. Ovaj podatak može da ukaže ne na to da će se kod osoba povećane anksioznosti javiti niža inteligencija, već pre da ih testovna situacija onemogućava da iskažu svoj potencijal u potpunosti (Moutafi, Furnham & Crump, 2003). ...
... This can help them then see, for example, how people with a higher cognitive ability take decisions differently from people with a lower cognitive ability. According to research (Eysenck, 1979;Herrnstein and Murray, 1994;Jensen, 1980;Simonton, 1996;etc.), general intelligence assessed during childhood has consistently predicted behaviors that are maladaptive as well as adaptive. ...
Intelligence is the traditional element of interest when measuring the human cognitive abilities. However, intelligence is complex and researchers are constantly finding new angles of looking at it. One such angle is reflective reasoning. Sometimes individuals choose to override the intuitive answer and by engaging in further reflection they reach the correct answer. The cognitive reflection test (CRT) measures a person’s ability to suppress their incorrect intuitive answer in favor of reflection that should then lead to the correct response. The test contains three short mathematically based problems, which measure, among others, cognitive ability, mathematical abilities and cognitive reflection. Using a sample of 195 students from a state university, one of the largest universities in Romania, we explore the extent to which a variety of phenomena and trends identified by previous findings on CRT show similar results on our sample.
... One problem with the theory concerning the relationship between practices and values, i.e. that values are supposed to drive practices, is, as we have already briefly mentioned, that this theory lacks sufficient empirical support. As Eysenck (1979) has shown, all measurement in science is theory dependent. In order for constructs such as values to have actual existence in a real world, the theory underpinning the construct has to be well supported. ...
Progress in reducing gender pay differentials has been widely popularized, especially in Nordic countries such as Iceland, which have been vaunted for their efforts in reducing inequality. However, even in Iceland, there remains considerable work to be done to reduce remaining pay gaps between the genders. One potential explanation for gender pay differentials concerns the presence of stereotypes threats, which define how individuals are characterised and perceptions of how groups should behave. This paper tests four hypotheses with respect to the potential presence of stereotype threats among females and how these might be influencing eventual pay demands in relation to two Icelandic jobs, a service position in a hotel and a program director. In particular, the study focused on whether efforts to reduce information asymmetry might be effective in reducing gender pay gaps. Two experiments were conducted in Iceland involving the surveying of 164 business and psychology undergraduate students, including 112 females and 52 males. The results of this study underscored perceptions that females typically issue lower wage demands than males, which were 18% lower than their male counterparts in relation to the program director role. The results supported the hypothesis that stereotype threat priming caused females to make lower wage requirements, with females who answered the questionnaire with the gender question in the beginning communicated wage requirements which were 14.5% lower than the women who received the questionnaire with the gender question at the end. Additionally, the study finds that a clear benchmark for wages eliminated the stereotype threat. The results also indicated that gender differences in wage requirements were reduced by 18% when no information about wage benchmarks was given, and were only 4.5% when this information was provided. Although further research is required across different sectoral and national contexts, this study provides a body of evidence in support of females making higher wage demands in order to reduce gender pay differentials and how the provision of enhanced information can be helpful for this group when determining the “correct” pay demand to issue in job interviews.
... -IQ tests are reasonably good measures of that ability (Eysenck, 1979). ...
... Traditional approaches to human intelligence include biological, cognitive and more recent system approaches to intelligence (Deary 2012). Eysenck (1979) described intelligence thus as an ability, which may be seen in practice, and at times it is not visible in practice. He further notes that intelligence should be deducted from observed behaviour and to accomplish this, it is necessary to use certain scientific rules of experimental procedures. ...
... And of course MZ twins may be treated differently than DZ twins, or might be encouraged to make more similar decisions in life (Kendler et al., 1993;Richardson & Norgate, 2005). But these oftendiscussed caveats (e.g., Eysenck, 1979) do not form the crux of our concerns here. The problems we have in mind are more substantive in nature, and they hinder people's appreciation of the malleability of intelligence as well as its gene-environment interplay. ...
Intelligence can have an extremely high heritability, but also be malleable; a paradox that has been the source of continuous controversy. Here we attempt to clarify the issue, and advance a frequently overlooked solution to the paradox: Intelligence is a trait with unusual properties that create a large reservoir of hidden gene–environment (GE) networks, allowing for the contribution of high genetic and environmental influences on individual differences in IQ. GE interplay is difficult to specify with current methods, and is underestimated in standard metrics of heritability (thus inflating estimates of “genetic” effects). We describe empirical evidence for GE interplay in intelligence, with malleability existing on top of heritability. The evidence covers cognitive gains consequent to adoption/immigration, changes in IQ's heritability across life span and socioeconomic status, gains in IQ over time consequent to societal development (the Flynn effect), the slowdown of age-related cognitive decline, and the gains in intelligence from early education. The GE solution has novel implications for enduring problems, including our inability to identify intelligence-related genes (also known as IQ’s “missing heritability”), and the loss of initial benefits from early intervention programs (such as “Head Start”). The GE solution can be a powerful guide to future research, and may also aid policies to overcome barriers to the development of intelligence, particularly in impoverished and underprivileged populations.
... Their paper is probably the most cited paper in behaviour genetics. Eysenck (1979) said his "book is the first to base itself entirely on these new methods". Martin, Boomsma and Neale (1989, p. 5) regard the paper as "seminal". ...
English
The use of behaviour genetic heritability analysis to study demographic behaviour is fraught with problems. We explain the concepts and methods used by behaviour geneticists, which are based on Fisher (1918) and Jinks and Fulker (1970), point out their deficiencies, and show that the basic assumptions of the behaviour genetic model do not hold. A behavioural trait should be analysed not by using heritability but by using the coefficient of intensity of inheritance. Confusion between statistical concepts and heritability abounds. Fertility differs from other behavioural traits in many respects. It is affected by many known environmental factors. Male and female fertility are affected by different factors and should be studied using different techniques. Galton’s 19th century idea of nature-nurture or Fisher’s early 20th century genetics have little use in the genomic era. We need new concepts. One of these could be the species value of a gene, another is regulatory genes i.e. + or – genes that regulate a behavioural trait. The latter poses a serious challenge to the Fisherian concept of additive genes and this concept has to be discarded. Molecular genetics is the key to the understanding of human and animal behaviour.
... Pese a ser inicialmente partidario del modelo de Thurstone, Hans Eysenck adopta el modelo de la inteligencia general (factor " g " ) de Spearman, elaborando un modelo del mismo basado en una inteligencia biológica, una inteligencia psicométrica y una inteligencia social (Eysenck, 1979). Según este modelo, la inteligencia biológica corresponde a la base del factor " g " , el cual posee un origen genético y se puede medir a través de 5 marcadores: la actividad cerebral registrada en el EEG, los potenciales evocados, los tiempos de reacción, la velocidad de conducción nerviosa y la res-puesta psicogalvánica (Pelechano, 1997). ...
El tema de la inteligencia es hasta el día de hoy, motivo de polémicas y controversias, constituyéndose como el ejemplo clásico de naturaleza v/s entorno ¿la inteligencia es innata y heredable o por el contrario depende de los ambientes culturales y educativos pudiendo mejorarse? La historia de la definición de la inteligencia es la historia de esta lucha en base a modelos teóricos e instrumentos para medirla, lo cuales explícita o implícitamente se adscriben a una de estas dos posturas.
Si bien el interés por estudiar esta capacidad se remonta a tiempos antiguos, es recién a fines del siglo XIX y principios del XX que toma un carácter científico, cuando se elaboran teorías que tratan de explicar el increíble intelecto humano, construyendo diversas pruebas psicométricas para intentar evaluar cuantitativa y objetivamente este constructo.
Durante el siglo pasado proliferaron los modelos que hablaban de un elemento central a todas las habilidades y que daba cuenta de una inteligencia única, en tanto otros modelos se inclinaban por la
existencia de varias inteligencias, independientes entre sí y que explicaban la enorme variabilidad del intelecto entre las personas. Por otro lado, los recientes descubrimientos biológicos han entregado algunas pistas sobre la naturaleza de la inteligencia, entregando las bases cerebrales que la sustentan.
Los estudios sobre los tras-tornos de la inteligencia, por un lado, y de los niños talentosos y superdotados, por el otro, entregan información valiosa para ayudar a comprender este fenómeno. De igual forma el desarrollo de la inteligencia artificial (o al menos lo que hoy en día se desarrolla bajo ese concepto) representan importantes esfuerzos en este camino de conocimiento de una de las capacidades más sobresalientes de nuestra especie.
El presente texto navega a través de la evolución de las di-versas teorías de la inteligencia durante el siglo pasado y muestra perspectivas nuevas y que han visto la luz en los albores del siglo XXI, entregando una amplia mirada del estado actual de la discusión sobre el fenómeno del intelecto
... Reasoning-or the ability to associate by similarity-has long been described as intelligence and what has differentiated humans from animals (James, 1890). A definition of g in this manner appears to conform with Spearman's neogenesis laws of the eduction of relations and correlates (Eysenck, 2007;Gustafsson, 1984;Spearman, 1927). Thus, this almost isomorphic relation may be a way in which to define g in psychological terms (Gustafsson, 1984), although others may argue that no such interpretation should be made (Jensen, 1998). ...
The purpose of this research was to test the consistency in measurement of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition (WISC-V; Wechsler, 2014) constructs across the 6 through 16 age span and to understand the constructs measured by the WISC-V. First-order, higher-order, and bifactor confirmatory factor models were used. Results were compared with two recent studies using higher-order and bifactor exploratory factor analysis (Canivez, Watkins, & Dombrowski, 2015; Dombrowski, Canivez, Watkins, & Beaujean, 2015) and two using confirmatory factor analysis (Canivez, Watkins, & Dombrowski, 2016; Chen, Zhang, Raiford, Zhu, & Weiss, 2015). We found evidence of age-invariance for the constructs measured by the WISC-V. Further, both g and five distinct broad abilities (Verbal Comprehension, Visual Spatial Ability, Fluid Reasoning, Working Memory, and Processing Speed) were needed to explain the covariances among WISC-V subtests, although Fluid Reasoning was nearly equivalent to g. These findings were consistent whether a higher-order or a bifactor hierarchical model was used, but they were somewhat inconsistent with factor analyses from the prior studies. We found a correlation between Fluid Reasoning and Visual Spatial factors beyond a general factor (g) and that Arithmetic was primarily a direct indicator of g. Composite scores from the WISC-V correlated well with their corresponding underlying factors. For those concerned about the fewer numbers of subtests in the Full Scale IQ, the model implied relation between g and the FSIQ was very strong.
... Pese a ser inicialmente partidario del modelo de Thurstone, Hans Eysenck adopta el modelo de la inteligencia general (factor " g " ) de Spearman, elaborando un modelo del mismo basado en una inteligencia biológica, una inteligencia psicométrica y una inteligencia social (Eysenck, 1979). Según este modelo, la inteligencia biológica corresponde a la base del factor " g " , el cual posee un origen genético y se puede medir a través de 5 marcadores: la actividad cerebral registrada en el EEG, los potenciales evocados, los tiempos de reacción, la velocidad de conducción nerviosa y la res-puesta psicogalvánica (Pelechano, 1997). ...
... Eysenck's hypothesis was that general intelligence (g) is underlain by mental speed, which he tested through various response and inspection time protocols aided by complex algorithms (e.g., . Within the experimental psychology paradigm, Eysenck strongly advocated a theoretical and laboratory-based approach for intelligence research (Eysenck, 1967a(Eysenck, , 1979. ...
The two most prominent individual differences researchers of the twentieth century were Hans J. Eysenck and Raymond B. Cattell. Both were giants of scientific psychology, each publishing scores of books and hundreds of empirical peer-reviewed journal articles. Influenced by Hebb's distinction between physiological (Intelligence A) and experiential (Intelligence B), Eysenck focused on discovering the underlying biological substrata of intelligence. Analogously, Cattell proposed the Gf–Gc theory which distinguishes between fluid and crystallised intelligence. Cattell's Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFIT), a measure primarily of fluid intelligence, was constructed specifically to minimise differences in test bias in IQ scores between different ethnic/racial groups. Within the personality realm, Eysenck adopted a pragmatic three-factor model as measured via the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ-R) and its variants. In contrast, Cattell employed a lexical approach that resulted in a large number of primary and secondary normal and abnormal personality trait dimensions, measured via the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), and the corresponding Clinical Analysis Questionnaire (CAQ), respectively. Recent molecular genetics findings provide empirical confirmation of Eysenck and Cattell's positions on the biological underpinnings of personality and ability traits, allowing an improved understanding of the causes of individual differences.
... Taken in combination with the zero-order correlations, the results of these multiple-regression analyses provide a further demonstration that psychometric measures of intelligence can be moderately predicted by a number of dimensions of personality. This, in turn, supports those theories con- cerned with individual differences that view intelligence and personality as inter- related rather than independent constructs (e.g., Allport, 1961;Brand, 1994;Cattell, 1965;Eysenck, 1979Eysenck, ,1992. ...
The present study investigated the phenotypic, genetic, and environmental correlations between personality factors and measured intelligence. Twin pairs (92 monozygotic and 50 same sex dizygotic) completed 20 sets of personality adjectives in self-report form as well as a group administered intelligence test, measuring general intelligence and verbal and performance composite scales. The personality adjectives were found to fit a five factor model. Personality aggregates were also created based on multiple regression analyses and used to predict each intelligence dimension, Triangular decompositions were computed to estimate the degree to which the phenotypic personality and intelligence relations were attributable to common genetic and/or environmental factors. Results of these analyses found small to moderate genetic and environmental correlations between intelligence and the personality factors, and moderate to high genetic correlations between intelligence and the personality aggregates, suggesting that intelligence is related to some personality traits at both the phenotypic and the genetic level. Copyright (C) 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Denne artikels primære formål er at give læseren et overblik
med hensyn til de mere overordnede intelligensformers udvikling over et livsløb og sekundært at undersøge, om intelligens
kan forudsige udvalgte livsudfald i bestemte aldersperioder. Vi
afklarer en række forhold, såsom hvad intelligens er, hvordan
den kan måles på tværs af forskellige livsfaser, og hvorledes
udvikling defineres som absolut forandring på gruppeniveau
eller som forandring i individuelle forskelle. Livsløbsudviklingen i intelligens illustreres fra den tidlige barndom til den sene
alderdom via det skandinaviske normmateriale fra tre sammenlignelige tests udviklet af den amerikanske psykolog David Wechsler og suppleres med længdesnitsundersøgelser, der også anvendes til at afklare den prædiktive værdi af intelligens. Udviklingen viser sig at variere betydeligt som et resultat af intelligenstype, udviklingstype og livsperiode. Individuelle forskelle i intelligens har væsentlig forudsigelsesværdi med hensyn til vigtige livsudfald i alle livets faser.
If our life cannot be read in the heavenly bodies that preside over our birth, could it be that our heredity consists of the book in which our fate is already partly written? That is what Galton (1822–1911) and his successors tried to demonstrate with eugenics. In this chapter we show the extreme misuses resulting from this conceptually flawed approach. We begin by examining in fuller detail how eugenics took hold in the nineteenth century under Galton’s guidance and developed throughout the first half of the twentieth century with the establishment of the Nazi and faschist regimes. Next, we look at the reasons for its apparent rejection after World War II and its transformation into a heredity-based theory aimed at controlling the growth and quality of the world population.
Begriff und Konstrukt – »Drei-Ringe-Modell« und »Triadisches Interdependenzmodell« – Das »Münchner Hochbegabungsmodell« und seine Erweiterung – Hochbegabung als hohe Ausprägung von g – Wider die »Kreativität« in der Hochbegabtenidentifikation – Administrative Hochbegabungskonzeptionen – Gardners »Multiple Intelligenzen« – Mehrphasiges Vorgehen bei der Hochbegabtenidentifikation – Hochbegabtenidentifikation durch Eltern, Lehrer oder Peers? Eigenschaften Hochbegabter – Fördermaßnahmen – Überspringen und vorzeitige Einschulung –Aspekte innerer Differenzierung – Akzeptanz von Fördermaßnahmen – Literatur.
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[Concept and construct –"Three Ring Model" and "Triadic Interdependence Model" – The "Munich Model of Giftedness" and its extension –Giftedness as a high general intelligence g – The problem of "creativity" – Administrative conceptions of giftedness – Gardner's "Multiple Intelligences" – Measurement and identification – Multi-stage approach to identifying gifted –Identification by parents, teachers or peers? – Characteristics of gifted – Nurturing the gifted – Grade skipping and early school entry –Internal differentiation – Acceptance of nurturing activities – References]
One of the key factors affecting students’ learning and performance, as well as the nature of effective learning environments globally is the ubiquitous use of intelligence testing in schools, and elsewhere to determine specific abilities, including giftedness and identify intellectual disabilities. In schools, intelligence testing is used to award scholarships in private schools and to stream students by abilities. Competing discourses on the nature of intelligence and intelligence testing demonstrate the on-going unresolved controversies surrounding conceptualization of intelligence and intelligence testing in society, especially its continuing use to measure a person’s cognitive ability and performance. Created more than a century ago, the intelligence tests are still widely used to measure performance on specific tasks, and especially predicting potential academic achievement in schools. The nature of intelligence testing in schools and its controversial effects on students’ academic achievement, and their mental health, plays a significant part in education policy reforms, aiming at creating more equitable learning environments.
Doktorska disertacija pod nazivom „Instrumenti socijalne kontrole pojedinaca, društvenih grupa i javnog mnjenja u savremenom društvu“ objavljena 2014. godine pod nayivom “Socijalna kontrola“ autora Nemanje Đukića, predstavlja prvo i jedino naučno istraživanje problema socijalne kontrole na prostoru bivše Jugoslavije. Nastojeći da postignemo originalni i jedinstven karakter, u ovom istraživanju smo primjenili interdisciplinarni pristup. Nastala kao sinteza najboljih naučnih tradicija sociologije, filozofije, politologije, mediologije i psihologije, ova disertacija posjeduje višestruk razvojni potencijal. U izvornom obliku, kao fundamentalno teorijsko istraživanje, ova disertacija teorijsko-metodološki utemeljuje socijalnu kontrolu kao novu pojmovnu paradigmu u savremenoj sociologiji. Istorijska i strukturalna analiza svih do sada poznatih (istorijskih i teorijskih) fenomena socijalnog kontrolisanja, omogućila nam je da sva prikupljena saznanja na jedinstven način povežemo u jednu cjelinu i da tu cjelinu nadogradimo. Otkrivanje manipulativne prakse socijalne kontrole te sistematsko i analitičko obrazlaganje načina kojima se u savremenom društvu kontrolišu ukupni ljudski resursi, predstavlja originalni naučni doprinos autora, koji otvara mogućnost da se na nivou pojmovne paradigme prevaziđe kriza u strukturi savremene sociološke nauke nastala metateorijskim i epistemološkim zaokretom u nekoliko prethodnih decenija. Utemeljujući socijalnu kontrolu kao novu pojmovnu paradigmu savremene sociologije, u razvojnom obliku disertacija omogućava započinjanje novog naučnog diskursa. Diskurs o socijalnoj kontroli kao najznačajnijem fenomenu savremenog društva, omogućava da se proces izgradnje globalnog drštva i njegove rezultujuće tranzicione posljedice, sagleda(ju) kritički u novom i izmjenjenom horizontu – kao planiran, organizovan i programiran proces koji nije bez alternative. Otuda ova disertacija predstavlja i orginalan doprinos alterglobalističkom i antiglobalističkom diskursu. U primjenjenom obliku, kao naučni sistem socijalne kontrole, disertacija omogućava donošenje niza postupaka i mjera za izgradnju nacionalnih regulativa i institucija u cilju socijalne kontrole strateških resursa. U svojoj početnoj fazi ona je već omogućila dva naučno-istraživačka projekta iz oblasti medijskog i političkog upravljanja. Svoj puni kapacitet ova disertacija može ostvariti kao jedinstvena naučna podloga u primjenjenom interdisciplinarnom istraživanju političkog, ekonomskog, bezbjednosnog, kulturnog, medijskog i psihološkog upravljanja, koje može i treba biti institucionalizovano.
Changes in personality are one of the main concerns Parkinson's disease (PD) patients raise when facing the decision to undergo neurosurgery for deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the subthalamic nucleus (STN). While clinical instruments for monitoring functional changes following DBS surgery are well-established in the daily therapeutic routine, personality issues are far less systematically encompassed. Moreover, while sex disparities in the outcomes of STN-DBS therapy have been reported, little is known about the different effects that DBS treatment may have on mood and personality traits in female and male patients. To this aim, the effect of STN-DBS on personality traits was assessed in 46 PD patients (12 women and 34 men) by means of the Freiburg Personality Inventory. The Becks Depression Inventory (BDI-I) and the Parkinson's Disease Questionnaire were used to evaluate patients' level of depression and quality of life (QoL). Patients completed the questionnaires a few days before, within the first year, and 2 years after surgery. The 12 personality traits defined by the FPI-R questionnaire did not change significantly after STN-DBS surgery (p = 0.198). Women declared higher depression scores through all study stages (p = 0.009), but also showed a stronger QoL amelioration after surgery than male patients (p = 0.022). The BDI-I scores of female patients clearly correlated with their levodopa equivalent daily dose (LEDD; r = 0.621, p = 0.008). Remarkably, in both male and female patients, higher pre-operative LEDDs were related to worse post-operative QoL scores (p = 0.034). These results mitigate the concerns about systematic personality changes due to STN-DBS treatment in PD patients and encourage an early DBS approach, before severe levodopa-induced sequelae may irreparably compromise the patients' QoL. In the future, more focus should lie on sex-related effects, since female patients seem to profit more than male patients from STN-DBS, in terms of reduced depressive symptoms associated with a reduction of the LEDD and amelioration of QoL. These aspects may help to redress the sex imbalance in PD patients treated with DBS, given that women are still strongly under-represented.
Rost, D.H. (hrsg.). (2009). Hochbegabte und hochleistende Jugendliche. Befunde aus dem Marburger Hochbegabtenprojekt (2., erweiterte Auflage). Münster: Waxmann.
Zusätzlich zum Cover: Vorworte, Inhaltsverzeichnis, Kapitel 1.
Introduction. The paper represents the analysis of the ability to teach within the context of the study of the phenomenon of giftedness and psychological structure of a teacher’s professional activities. The objective of the paper is to analyze key areas of the development of the concept of teacher giftedness. This approach allows to describe the basic qualities of the efficient pedagogical activity at the stage of training teachers at higher school. Materials and Methods. Description of key areas of the concept of pedagogical giftedness is based on the ability theory, proposed by V. D. Shadrikov. At the same time, modeling processes of goal-oriented development of pedagogical giftedness is based on a set of modern research psychological methods of structuralfunctional analysis allowing for prediction of properties of the pedagogical system of a teacher, which has such characteristics as varying degrees of success. Organizational methods (first of all, comparative) open up possibilities for assessing the effectiveness of giftedness-in-training development at different stages of teacher training – pre-university, undergraduate and post-graduate. The choice of empirical methods is substantiated by the results of theoretically modeling the structure and ways of development of pedagogical giftedness at the stage of professional self-determination at school, under conditions of educational and independent professional activity. Out of interpretative methods, the most significant (in the context of planned results) are genetic, structural and functional methods . Results. Based on the analysis of the theory of abilities, taking into account the progress in the activitybased approach, a new understanding of the object of psychological sciences as the inner personal world, the methodological validity of the concept of goal-oriented development of pedagogical gift under conditions of teacher training is substantiated. The results obtained make it possible to get a fresh look at the problem of the teacher’s professionally valuable qualities and translate its solution from analytical to systemic research methodology. In the concept proposed by the authors first time ever, the phenomenon of giftedness is considered within the context of its formation in teacher college student, while the subject of the bulk of contemporary research is the object of pedagogical influence. Discussion and Conclusion. The practical application of the study results can significantly modernize the process of teacher training in pedagogical colleges and universities. They will be useful for the teaching staff of pedagogical universities, secondary vocational education institutions, and departments of continuing education.
Athletes’ place of early development has been shown to be associated with the likelihood of reaching elite level. While findings in North America and Australia, suggest that athletes from smaller communities have a higher likelihood of reaching elite level, findings in European studies have been varying across countries and sports. Thus, it remains to be understood how the place of early development, a community level factor, influence athlete development. The purpose of this Ph.D. project was therefore to investigate the role of athletes’ place of early development in Danish handball and football.
Odds ratio analysis showed that elite youth and elite senior football players were more likely to have grown up in communities of high population density (>1000 pop./km2) and medium or larger population sizes (<30.000), whereas elite and elite youth handball players most likely had grown up in communities of medium population density (100 to <250 pop./km2) and size (30.000<50.000).
A geospatial analysis indicated across both sports that elite youth players have grown up near talent and elite clubs. Further, semi-structured interviews with coaches and talent managers revealed specific requirements and barriers in football players’ place of early development at three levels: community, club and team. Participants perceived small and remote clubs as barriers for players’ early development. The interview findings also indicated a link between conditions in players’ early development environments and how coaches and talent managers perceive talented youth players.
Moreover, the findings indicated that the participants often experienced a clustering of talented youth players at random clubs. This clustering of talented players was by talent managers and coaches perceived to transcend the otherwise recognized club and community level barriers for talent development.
This Ph.D. project have aimed to refine the understanding of players’ place of early development. For instance, the findings have revealed that not only community population size, but also community population density seem be related to player’s development. More importantly, the findings also reveal that spatial circumstances such as proximity to talent clubs influence players’ development across both handball and football. Further, findings across the papers suggest that the organization of the sport is more influential than the community size and density. Lastly, the findings across papers also imply that conditions at team level can outweigh spatial barriers such as small and remote clubs. Future studies should further investigate alternative spatial circumstances, but also involve case studies that explore how both successful small or remote clubs specifically outweigh spatial barriers.
The hypotheses of behaviour genetics were formulated by Fisher at the beginning of the nineties: (1) there are polygenes that act additively; (2) they segregate independently; (3) the influence of the environment is unrelated to that of the genes; (4) the population is in equilibrium; (5) the number of polygenes is supposed infinite.
If every trait has a genetic content we may examine in more details how different approaches try to show if it is possible to determine the respective proportions of gene and environments in this influence: first classical studies, then the use of genomic methods and finally the use of postgenomic methods.
We show that all the Fisher's hypotheses are not verified: both genes end environment are involved in all traits and it is not possible to verify their weighting or quantitative influence on any traits.
We can wonder why, despite all these criticisms, behaviour genetic remains so powerful, mainly in the US. We think that its links with political aspects, trying to improve the quality of the population is the main reason for that.
Ausgehend von der bewährten Auffassung, "Hochbegabung" als Extremvariante der allgemeinen Intelligenz "g" zu verstehen, wird auf dem Hintergrund der einschlägigen Literatur aus psychologisch-inhaltlichen, methodischen und erfassungspraktischen Gründen davor
gewarnt, dieses bewährte Konzept leichtfertig zugunsten von alternativen, weniger leistungsfähigen Identifikationsstrategien (z. B. Einbezug "sozialer Intelligenz", "Kreativität") aufzugeben. Entsprechende Alternativmodelle von Renzulli und - darauf aufbauend - Mönks werden einer exemplarischen Kritik (z. B. konzeptuelle Schwächen, mangelnde Operationalisierbarkeit zentraler Komponenten, zu hoher Allgemeinheitsgrad) unterzogen. Nach der Darstellung und Erläuterung der drei Phasen (Screening, Verifizierung, Plazierung) einer pädagogisch orientierten Identifikation von Hochbegabung werden Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Informationsgewinnung aus unterschiedlichen Informationsquellen (Schüler, Lehrer, Eltern, Peers) diskutiert. Die Übersicht zeigt, daß der psychometrisch orientierte Ansatz bislang allen vorgeschlagenen Alternativen deutlich überlegen ist. Alternative Informationsquellen sollten für die Entscheidung, ob ein Schüler hochbegabt ist oder nicht, nie allein, sondern - wenn überhaupt - nur als Ergänzung zum klassischen psychometrischen Vorgehen berücksichtigt werden.
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Based on the well-established idea of giftedness as a high degree of general intelligence "g", it is cautioned that in the light of psychological
content, methodological, and operational considerations (and on the background of relevant literature), care needs to be taken not to dispose of this proven concept in favor of alternative, less proven identification strategies. Corresponding alternative models such as those of Renzulli and Mönks undergo a criticism (for example, conceptual shoncomings, inability to operationalize central components, too high degree of generality) which apply to
other alternative models as weIl. Following the presentation and description of the three stages of an educationally-oriented identification of giftedness (screening, verification, and placement), the pros and cons of collecting information from various sources (students, teachers, parents, and peers) are discussed. The review shows that to date, the psychometrically oriented approach is superior
to all others suggested; regarding the decision as to whether a student
is gifted or not, exclusive use of alternative information sources should never be made, and if use is made of them at all, then only as
a supplement to the classic psychometric approaches.
K. G. Jöreskog's (1969, 1970, 1974, 1978) confirmatory factor-analytic methodology was used to statistically test alternative hypotheses regarding the factor structure among tests of cognition, convergent production, and divergent production that underlies correlational data from the Aptitude Research Project. Large substantive improvements in goodness-of-fit indexes over random multifactor or general (single) factor models were not found, hence, the structure-of-intellect (SI) a priori models did not provide a superior fit to the data. The conclusion is that neither the high-dimensional SI model nor the general factor model provided a plausible level of overall fit to the data. Suggestions for future research and results of exploratory factor analyses are presented.
What is an intelligence quotient (IQ)? Intelligence is a theoretical construct with many definitions. The definition is further complicated by the belief of many that there are multiple types of intelligence. The IQ forms the most common operational definition as a cognitive and behavioral measure of global intellectual capability. Like intelligence, the IQ is best viewed as a multifaceted construct, but one that can be quantified by summing scores across tasks or subtests that comprise an intelligence test. In this way, the IQ is traditionally considered an index of Spearman's g, a general ability factor reflecting that how a person performs one task is likely similar to how well they score on others.
What is the relationship between language and culture? One argument has to do with whether there is a universal (biological) program for the acquisition of language or whether there is a set of potentialities which are molded by culture. Noam Chomsky argued for a universal (natural) program, whereas other linguists have argued that language is always a cultural invention. Daniel Everett suggests that only a general learning capacity is at work. Chomsky distinguished between broad and narrow faculties, the latter reducible to recursion, the folding of one statement into others by grammatical means. This, however, is not found in the Piraha language of Amazonia studied by Everett. Everett offered ‘intelligence’ as the factor enabling language acquisition, but the ability to combine patterns gets us closer to the processes involved.
In komplexen Situationen fehlt oft die Zeit, planvoll, d. h. rational Entscheidungen zu treffen und in Verhalten zu überführen. Erkenntnisse der modernen Hirnforschung legen nahe, dass die meisten Entscheidungen unbewusst im limbischen System auf der Basis emotionaler Kriterien getroffen werden. Besonders die Arbeiten von Gerhard Roth fördern ein umfangreicheres Verständnis der Zusammenhänge von neuronalen Prozessen und dem, was wir „Empfindung“ nennen. Wo genau ist dabei eine eindeutige Unterscheidung zu treffen zwischen vernünftigen (im professionellen Kontext gerne auch „rational“ genannten) Herleitungen von Entscheidungen und dem sogenannten „Bauchgefühl“? „Die große Herausforderung besteht also darin, die neurobiologischen Grundlagen des „Seelischen“ zu bestimmen und zugleich die Fallstricke eines Reduktionismus wie die eines Dualismus zu vermeiden.“ (Roth und Strüber 2014). Im Grunde ist natürlich jede Empfindung das Produkt neuronaler Prozesse und synaptischer Kommunikation. Wozu ist also Selbstreflexion gut? Roth beschreibt die revolutionären Entwicklungen der Neurophysiologie der vergangenen Jahre als „Quantensprung“, weil nachgewiesen werden konnte, dass z. B. psychische Traumatisierungen neurochemische Veränderungen hervorrufen, die wiederum Gehirnmechanismen maßgeblich verändern. So verändert sich die Empfindlichkeit gegenüber den Auswirkungen früherer Erfahrungen dahingehend, dass die Psyche durch den veränderten Mechanismus geschützt wird. Diese Veränderungen können sogar genetische Verankerungen hervorrufen, also die genetischen Voraussetzungen nachkommender Generationen beeinflussen. Sicher wird der Laie in den nächsten Jahren kaum in der Lage sein, die den zugrunde liegenden Empfindungen entsprechenden hirnphysiologischen Prozesse bei sich selbst analysieren und damit vorhersagen zu können. Für das Verständnis der eigenen Persönlichkeit und der damit verbundenen Denk- und Handlungsmuster allerdings können daraus sicher wertvolle Erkenntnisse gezogen werden. Beispielsweise könnte in der persönlichen Auseinandersetzung mit eigenem Jähzorn aktiv nach Lernprogrammen zur Vermeidung des eigenen „Verhaltensmechanismus“ in entsprechenden Situationen geforscht werden, statt das Verhalten nur moralisch zu bewerten. Die durch Selbstreflexion gewonnene Multioptionalität des eigenen Verhaltens ist aus ökonomischer Perspektive die beste Voraussetzung für Handlungsfähigkeit in komplexen oder instabilen Situationen. Umgangssprachlich könnte man es so formulieren: Ich weiß, wo meine empfindlichen Stellen, meine überzeugenden Fähigkeiten und meine inneren Antreiber sind, kann all das in einen übergeordneten (situativen) Kontext bringen und treffe dementsprechend „richtige“ Entscheidungen, die auch darin bestehen können, jemand anderen einzubeziehen, der die eigene Lernvergangenheit, also Prägung nicht teilt. Über die Kenntnis der eigenen Persönlichkeitsmerkmale hinaus kann so in einem Team oder einer Organisation der Reifegrad maßgeblich angehoben werden, was positive Effekte auf allen Arbeitsebenen zur Folge hat.
As each chapter of this book has been designed to provide specific information regarding assessment devices that could or would be used for the diagnosis and evaluation of treatment effectiveness, this chapter will not address the issue of what standardized tests may be used in the assessment of specific disorders. Rather, this chapter has been designed to present a critical view of the use of standardized tests to diagnose childhood psychopathology and to aid in the evaluation of treatment effectiveness.
The E in C-OAR-SE stands for the final aspect of the theory, which is a double selection procedure called enumeration and scoring rule. “Enumeration” means how the answer scale is scored quantitatively. “Scoring rule” had two applications: it is the rule adopted by the researcher for deriving a total score for an individual within one item if the construct is doubly concrete, or across multiple items, if the construct measured is abstract in either the object or the attribute; and it is also the rule that the researcher adopts when combining scores from individuals to compute a group statistic such as a mean or median.
The social order, which explicitly and implicitly seeks to form candidates for university enrollment, is fueled by powerful philosophical, scientific, and sociopolitical factors. These factors contribute to the ongoing formation of the college candidate from birth, through youth, and into adulthood. These factors not only affect the development of the college applicant prior to admission (or rejection) but also affect the academic performance of that student once (or if) he or she is admitted to college.
Since the beginnings of scientific ethology, the question was posed concerning to what extent the knowledge and insight gained from the study of animals could be applied to an understanding of human behavior and psychology. This discussion always involved speculations and was laden with misunderstandings. Opinions differ, not only outside ethology but also within the discipline. Response ranges from the incorporation of ethological results and theories into psychology to the total rejection of any attempts at such comparisons. The first position is based on the unquestionable fact of our human origins from nonhuman ancestors, and on the agreements and similarities of physical characteristics and functions that follow from this acceptance. It is hard to imagine why behavior in its totality should be an exception to this. The opposing opinion is rooted in the view that humans have diverged from all nonhuman organisms, especially with respect to behavior, so that comparisons are not valid—at least there are no theoretical or practical consequences. There may, of course, be philosophical or other reservations as well.
The so-called Rasch model, now widely employed for item analysis, is only one of a complete family of models described by Rasch in his 1960 text. All may be properly called “Rasch Models” since they share a common feature which Rasch labeled “specific objectivity”. This is a property of most measurement systems which requires that the comparison of any two objects that have been measured shall not depend upon which measuring instrument or instruments were used. It is a familiar feature of many everyday physical measurements (length, time, weight, etc.). In the context of mental testing, it means that the comparison of two individuals who have been tested should be independent of which items were included in the tests. Traditional test analysis based on “true scores” does not have this property since “scores” on one test cannot be directly compared to “scores” on another. The particular virtues of specific objectivity and the conditions needed to achieve it are discussed later in this chapter.
At the turn of the century mental testing was in a state of crisis, at least in so far as the psychology of intelligence was concerned. This aura of crisis is well illustrated by Spearman’s (1904b) review of the early attempts to relate mental test scores to various criteria of academic competence.
Tests of intelligence are unpopular with Western intellectuals today. Notoriously, the tests appear to discriminate against ‘minorities’ and against ‘the working class’; and women are under-represented in the higher ranges of IQ. Moreover, the tests are often held to be ‘circular’: critics who make this charge are repeating, however unknowingly, the dictum of one of the few geniuses who have ever applied their talents to psychology - namely Edwin Boring, who was the first to remark, in 1923, that intelligence “is what the tests test.”
IQ testing is very much alive. Old tests are revised (e.g., WISC-R, Wechsler, 1974), and new tests (K-ABC, Kaufman & Kaufman, 1983) and books about testing (Sattler, 1982) continue to appear. Much of this activity centers around the testing of children, probably because questions about current and future developmental status arise most commonly in childhood. Insofar as the IQ is a good index of both—and there are sufficient grounds for asserting that (within limits) it is (Madge & Tizard, 1980)—the continued use of IQ tests is comprehensible.
A theory concerning the biological basis of intelligence is presented. The theory is based on a previously published theory concerning brain function and memory. A simulation study relating the theory to EEG is reported. Based on the computer simulation, a new EEG based measure of intelligence was proposed. Limited data utilizing this proposed measure indicate that it does correlate well with standard I.Q. test scores. Another test of biological intelligenc, Inspection Time, is discussed in the light of the overall theory, and the two measures are compared.