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Full citation to this publication is as follows:
Roehrich, J.K. (2008). Outsourcing: Management and prac-
tice within the automotive industry. In: Parry, G. & Graves, A.
(Eds.) (2008) Build To Order: The Road to the 5-day Car.
London: Springer, pp. 75-97. (doi)
Outsourcing: Management and Practice within the
Automotive Industry
Jens K. Roehrich
Centre for Research in Strategic Purchasing and Supply (CRiSPS); School of Management, University of
Bath.
Abstract
With the continuing increase of competitive pressures in the automobile industry, the accelera-
tion of cost and price pressures and the omnipresent need for improvement of engineering
productivity managers have to constantly ensure the company’s survival in the market. This
perspective emphasises the need for managers to consider outsourcing in order to sustain a
company’s competitive advantage. The use of external assembly service providers in the au-
tomotive industry is widespread and is embraced in the build to order concept. Outsourcing
capacity brings with it the risk of outsourcing competency. Managers in the customer-
conscious automotive market have to thoroughly understand the concept and the associated
risks in order to benefit from the outsourcing practice. Therefore, this chapter critically evalu-
ates the benefits and risks associated with outsourcing core and supporting activities in the au-
tomotive industry. Moreover, the study draws on different theoretical positions delivering a
rigorous description and comparison of the theoretical outsourcing standpoints. The research
study is underpinned by empirical evidence from the automotive industry and concludes with
a set of managerial implications to facilitate well-grounded outsourcing decisions within the
automotive industry.
Introduction to the chapter
The management practice of outsourcing a company’s core and supporting activities in a vari-
ety of business functions has been a focus of attention, not only recently, but also during the
last decades. The Build to Order [BTO] paradigm presented in this book makes use of the out-
sourcing concept to deliver the flexible capacity necessary to deliver a car in 5 days. Apart
from the growing volume of literature describing various facets of outsourcing, the consultan-
cy business welcomes outsourcing as a weapon to fight within a competitive marketplace as
well as to focus business strategies. This chapter presents a concise analysis of outsourcing
core and supporting activities, with an emphasis on how to manage and evaluate outsourcing
practice as the automotive industry moves towards BTO.
Defining the concept of outsourcing 3
Outsourcing is prominent for many organisations thinking of survival in global competi-
tion. With the emergence of global, fast changing markets, shorter product life-cycles com-
bined with a whole-life costing approach, companies across industries are facing strong pres-
sures on their competitiveness and profitability. Customers are nowadays paying more
attention to the innovativeness and the customisation of a product and service, taking high
quality and delivery performance linked to low prices as a must. Consequently, companies
have to constantly evaluate and improve organisational adaptability and competitiveness. This
perspective emphasises the need for managers to consider outsourcing, among several other
managerial practices, in order to sustain a company’s competitive advantage over its rivals.
Outsourcing involves offloading a company’s activities to external providers who possess
expertise, innovative technologies and resources in its specialisation to carry out activities
highly efficiently. The concept of outsourcing may bring about benefits to the outsourcing
company which are vital for its competitive market position. But caution tempers the enthusi-
asm for outsourcing. Outsourcing has progressed from involving only peripheral business ac-
tivities towards embracing critical core activities that contribute to a company‘s competitive
advantage. As a result, outsourcing has become an increasingly complex and vital issue for
many organisations.
Managers in the customer-conscious automotive industry have to thoroughly understand
the concept and the associated risks of outsourcing in order to benefit from the practice. While
it may be true that some companies base their outsourcing decisions purely on cost savings,
companies must also evaluate decisions from several other beneficial perspectives. Yet, the
risk of an inappropriate outsourcing decision may prove fatal and evidence is omnipresent
across various industries.
Therefore, this chapter critically evaluates the benefits and risks associated with outsourc-
ing core and supporting activities in the automotive industry. Furthermore, the study draws on
different theoretical positions delivering a rigorous description and comparison of the theoreti-
cal outsourcing standpoints. The benefits of successful outsourcing and the risks and conse-
quences of outsourcing failure are outlined. The research study is underpinned by empirical
evidence from the automotive industry and concludes with a set of managerial implications to
facilitate well-grounded outsourcing decisions. This chapter is beneficial to middle- and sen-
ior-managers in the automotive industry who are considering outsourcing or who already have
outsourcing programmes in place.
Defining the concept of outsourcing
Before discussing the different approaches and their impact on outsourcing decisions, it is vi-
tal to rigorously define the concept of outsourcing. Therefore, the following section paves the
way for a discussion on outsourcing core and supporting activities by collating the various
outsourcing definitions. Outsourcing has been defined in various ways by practitioners and ac-
ademics. In common is the acknowledgement of risks and benefits that come along with out-
sourcing decisions. Definitions of outsourcing recognise the practice as the procurement of prod-
ucts or services from sources external to the organization (Lankford and Parsa 1999, p.310) or as the
transfer of previously in-house activities to a third party (Lonsdale 1999, p.176).
Seen from the view of strategic flexibility, outsourcing is just one way in which the bound-
ary of an organisation can be adjusted in response to changing global markets. It might con-
cern either a firm’s primary supply chains or its supporting activities (Lonsdale and Cox
2000). With regard to the growing interdependence of companies, a strategic flexibility per-
spective becomes increasingly important for a single firm. Recognising the controversial dis-
cussion about core competences in an organisation, Sharpe (1997, p.538) defines outsourcing
as turning over a part or all of those functions that fall outside the organisation’s chosen core competencies to
an external supplier whose core competencies are the functions being outsourced. This definition is closely
associated with the notion of the organisation’s core activities which raises the problematic is-
sue of identification of what is core and what is supporting.
Approaches to outsourcing
The following theoretical approaches have to be taken into consideration in order to derive
well-grounded outsourcing decisions that are beneficial to the company. Among the most
common theoretical approaches are the resource-based view, the resource-dependency theory,
the transaction cost theory and the industrial network approach, which will be outlined in the
following sections. The section on outsourcing approaches concludes with a summary con-
trasting the different approaches and their impact on outsourcing decisions.
The resource-based view - How can a company sustain its competitive
advantage in a dynamic market environment?
The resource-based view (RBV) understands the firm’s resources as the foundation for its
strategy. Focusing on internal resources and competencies to develop organisational capabili-
ties in order to achieve a distinctive competence are central to this theory. A firm’s compe-
tence can be described as a competitively valuable activity that a company performs better than its rivals
[and which] represents a competitively superior resource strength (Thompson et al. 2005, p.91). The re-
source-based view states that a firm will earn abnormal profits due to their lower cost gained
by superior productive resources (Lonsdale 1999). Furthermore, companies can also earn ab-
normal profits through superior productive capabilities or through product differentiation, en-
abling the company to provide valued uniqueness and functionality for its customers and
charge a premium. However, in order to sustain a competitive advantage in the resource-based
view, the company should install protection around its resource position to avoid substitutions
and imitations. Rumelt (1987) cited a list of ‘isolating mechanisms’ including, for instance,
buyer switching costs, reputation, producer learning and economies of scale for firms, that are
needed to protect a company’s favoured market position.
From an outsourcing perspective, another condition to gain abnormal profit is to retain the
valuable resources within the firm’s boundaries. Williamson (1985) stated that it would be
easier for a firm to do so if the resource is ‘firm-specific’, i.e. that its value diminished outside
the firm. Teece (1987) added the notion of ‘co-specialised’, i.e. it is only valuable if it is used
Approaches to outsourcing 5
in combination with other resources within a firm, as another condition which keeps valuable
resources inside the firm’s boundaries. Therefore, the resource-based view proposed that if the
firm outsourced certain resources, it will loss control over its strategic core. In other words,
the company’s competitive position depends on its ability to gain and defend advantageous
positions concerning resources important to production and distribution (Wernerfelt 1984,
Barney 1991).
In addition to deploying existing resources and capabilities, Grant (1991) cited that a com-
pany should also develop its internal resources and capabilities. In order to fully exploit a
firm’s existing stock of resources and capabilities, and to develop a competitive advantage, the
external acquisition, i.e. outsourcing, of complementary resources and capabilities may be
necessary. Grant (1991) argued that the outsourcing strategy not only secures the firm’s exist-
ing resources, but also increases resources and capabilities as well as a company’s strategic
opportunities. Managers in the automotive industry have to understand that it is seldom
enough to just posses a competitive advantage in the marketplace. The competitive market en-
vironment pronounces the need for timely responsiveness, rapid and flexible product innova-
tion, coupled with the managerial ability to effectively coordinate and redeploy internal and
external competences. The question now to ask is how do firms achieve and sustain a competi-
tive advantage over its rivals?
The competitive advantage of firms is considered as resting on distinctive processes (ways of co-
ordinating and combining), shaped by the firm’s specific asset positions (such as the firm’s portfolio of diffi-
cult-to-trade knowledge assets and complementary assets), and the evolution path(s) it has adopted or inherited
(Teece et al. 1997, p.509). Keeping in mind the definition above and the ever changing market
environment, a rather static viewpoint is less appropriate to answer the question of how a
company sustains its competitive advantage.
A more dynamic concept drawing on dynamic rather than static capabilities should be de-
ployed. Dynamic capabilities are defined as the firm’s ability to integrate, build, and reconfigure inter-
nal and external competences to address rapidly changing environment (Teece et al. 1997, p.516). In
markets where the competitive landscape is rapidly shifting, dynamic capabilities become the
source of sustained competitive advantage (Eisenhardt and Martin 2000), giving organisations
the ability to gain new and innovative forms of competitive advantage. Dynamic capabilities
and the firm’s adaptability is one of the keys to sustainable competitive advantage in the fast-
moving automotive market. Companies in the automotive market have to constantly adjust and
align their dynamic capabilities consisting of firm specific strategic and organisational pro-
cesses like product development. These alignments should be supported by strategic decision
making and senior management support in order to create value for companies working within
dynamic markets.
Resource-dependency theory – Why is a company dependent on its external
environment?
The resource-dependency theory (RDT) differs from the resource-based view inasmuch as the
former focuses on the external environment and not on the internal. Academics in the field ar-
gue that an organisation finds itself dependent on some elements in its external environment
(Thompson 1967). The external dependency is caused by the firm’s limited control over need-
ed resources, such as land, labour, capital, information and/or specific products or services
(Kotter 1979). An internal lack of resources can be overcome by the firm when it enters into
exchange relationships with other firms, emphasising the dependency of the firm on its exter-
nal environment. Therefore, the resource-dependency theory emphasises the need for a com-
pany to adapt to environmental uncertainty, to handle problematic interdependences and to
oversee resource flows (Pfeffer and Salancik 1978). Cheon et al. (1995) stated that the de-
pendency of a firm on any other organisation, as it occurs in outsourcing relationships, is de-
termined by the importance of the resource to the organisation, the number of potential suppli-
ers and the cost of switching supplier. In conclusion, a firm’s outsourcing strategy consists of
different degrees of dependency of one organisation on another in order to acquire critical re-
sources which are not cost effectively available internally.
A different perspective of outsourcing decisions is made by the transaction cost theory
which is not based on resources but on costs which occur during transactions.
Transaction cost theory – Which costs to consider when making outsourcing
decisions?
The transaction cost theory (TCT) of a firm was introduced by Coase in the 1930s and further
developed by Williamson in the mid 1970s until the mid 1980s. This approach states that the
firm’s economic activity depends on the balance of production economics against transaction
cost. Transactions are seen as the exchanges of goods or services between economic actors,
who are technologically separate units, inside and/or outside the organisation (Williamson
1985). The success of a firm in the view of that theory depends upon an effective management
of transactions.
The transaction cost approach provides, among other benefits, a generic framework for ana-
lysing outsourcing options. According to this theory, the choice lies between using an out-
sourcing provider or providing services in-house (Lacity and Hirschheim 1993). Two different
types of costs have to be considered when making the decision between in-house production
and outsourcing provider: production and transaction costs. On one hand, smaller production
cost can be achieved by the decision to outsource, primarily due to the economies of scale that
a provider might have (Cheon et al. 1995). On the other hand, Cheon et al. (1995) pointed out
that outsourcing leads to higher transaction costs arising from negotiating, monitoring and en-
forcing contracts. In order to evaluate the decision whether to outsource or not, factors which
influence the magnitude of transaction costs should be assessed. Williamson (1985) suggested
three influencing factors: asset specificity or the degree to which the transaction will produce
an asset that is dedicated to a special purpose; the degree of uncertainty in the environment
such as unpredictable markets, technological and economic trends; and infrequency of con-
tracting. Figure 1 illustrates the relationships between the influencing factors of transaction
costs by Williamson, the trade-off between transaction and production costs and its conse-
quences. Each of the three influencing factors raises the effort and cost of structuring an
Approaches to outsourcing 7
agreement between outsourcer and outsourcing provider that will assume the successful com-
pletion of the contract (Cheon et al. 1995).
Fig. 1 A transaction costs perspective of outsourcing (Adapted from Cheon et al. 1995, p.214)
The transaction cost theory is solely based on a single firm, neglecting the existence of oth-
er firms and their influence on the firm’s behaviour. The industrial network approach takes the
firm’s wider network and its influence into account.
Industrial network approach – Why should a company consider its wider
network?
The network approach focuses on entire relationships among buying and selling firms and has
been influenced by the theory of social exchange. The industrial network approach provides,
like the resource dependency approach, a perspective on inter-organisational relationships
(Pfeffer and Salancik 1978). [I]t is concerned with a focal organisation [and] attempts to describe the mul-
tiplicity of relationships of any industrial or commercial organisation (Easton 1997, p.103). The resource
dependency view mainly concentrates on the individual relationship between firms whereas
the industrial network approach sees the network and its various relationships that exist be-
tween individuals, groups and organisations within a network.
Relationships are described in the literature as one of the most important assets of a compa-
ny. [A] relationship offers access to third parties who may have resources that are either valuable or essential
to survival (Easton 1997, p.107). The relationship consists of several important elements which
should all be met in order to reap the maximum benefit. The elements are mutual orientation,
dependence, the bond between firms, investments seen as the commitment of resources to-
wards the mutual orientation, as well as atmosphere described as the tension between conflict
and cooperation (Ford et al. 1986). Consequently, relationships form the context in which transactions
take place (Easton 1997, p.111).
Asset specificity
Uncertainty
Infrequency
OR
Transaction costs
<
Production costs
Outsourcing
Transaction Costs Factors
Decision Outcome
Transaction costs
>
Production costs
In-house
Production
Trade-off
Nowadays, companies have a portfolio of different types of supply relationships with a
number of suppliers of various capabilities and resources. Classifications of buyer-seller rela-
tionships can be based upon several variables such as involvement of the supplier, the strategic
importance of the outsourced product/service or the complexity of the supply market. Howev-
er, companies should always view relationships to their various suppliers in the network con-
text, as the total supplier network determines the efficiency and the effectiveness of the operations on t he
supply side of the companies (Gadde and Håkansson 2001, p.174). The network approach empha-
sises the combined and integrated capabilities and the exchange of information between the
involved actors. Companies should also be aware that any action undertaken by one actor impacts the
others in several different ways (Gadde and Håkansson 2001, p.176). Therefore, companies need to
include other network actors in their thinking and the company’s own activities and resources
should be seen as assets of the network rather than of a single company.
Summary of outsourcing approaches
Table 1 collates the four presented outsourcing approaches that should be taken into consid-
eration. Each approach addresses different vital aspects of the company and its surrounding
network. The amalgam of theses approaches will prove useful in facilitating managers to ar-
rive at well-grounded outsourcing decisions. The degrees to which the various approaches
should be taken into consideration depend strongly on organisational factors and environmen-
tal conditions.
Resource-based
view (RBV)
Resource-
dependency theo-
ry (RDT)
Transaction cost
theory (TCT)
Industrial Network
Approach
Possibilities to
outsource
Resources which
miss some or
several attributes
such as rare,
non-imitable,
and non-
substitutable
Resources which
miss some or
several attributes
such as rare,
non-imitable, and
non-substitutable
Activities that do
not require assets
specific investment
Issue of what the
company can mobi-
lise through the net-
work
Activities and re-
sources which can be
produced more effi-
ciently within the
network
Main variables
& fundamental
units of analysis
Resources
(internal)
Resources in the
external environ-
ment
Asset specificity,
Frequency,
Uncertainty
(Transactions)
Network,
Relationships and
Interactions (activi-
ties/ actors/ re-
sources)
Overall industrial
network structure
(How to mobilise re-
sources from other
actors?)
The quest for competitiveness – Identifying core and supporting activities 9
Limits to out-
sourcing
Core competences
and activities that
do not have these
attributes, but
cannot be sourced
from the market
(Critical) core re-
sources and valued
resources
Activities that re-
quire specific in-
vestment (high
specificity)
Core competences
which would make
the company redun-
dant
Risks
Firm may be-
come ‘hollow’,
Loss control over
strategic core,
Loss of access
to assets
Loss advanta-
geous position
(resources),
Loss control
over strategic
resources,
Become depend-
ent on too many
firms
Transaction cost
more than produc-
tion cost,
Outsourcing activi-
ties with high
specificity
Firm does not man-
age the relationships
properly and fails to
mobilise resources,
activities and actors
Table 1 A comparison of the four outsourcing approaches
Understanding the concept of core and supporting activities is crucial for companies in the
automotive sector when considering the outsourcing option. The following sections will ex-
plore the controversial debate over core and supporting activities and identify different models
which seek to distinguish between both.
The quest for competitiveness – Identifying core and supporting activities
In principle any part of the value chain can be externally sourced, though for that to occur for a particular firm
would imply that the company has no unique value-adding capabilities, and that its processes are available for
replication by competitors and possibly by customers (Jennings 2002, p.26). Since the 1980s there has
been a trend to reduce the degree to which companies are vertically integrated. Which activi-
ties should be considered in an outsourcing decision is a topic of an ongoing controversial dis-
cussion among practitioners and academics. Outsourcing can concern either a firm’s primary
supply chain(s) and consequently its core activities or it can concern its supporting activities.
Figure 2 depicts the distinction proposed by Arnold (2000).
Fig. 2 Outsourcing model by Arnold (From Arnold 2000, p.24)
Arnold’s outsourcing model is build upon four elements of outsourcing: the subject, the ob-
ject, the partner and the design of outsourcing. The subject of outsourcing can be considered
as the company which wants to outsource processes. The objects are the processes which
might be outsourced. Arnold (2000) distinguished between four different activities of a firm.
The core activities of a company are defined as all activities which are necessarily connected with a
company’s existence (Arnold, 2000, p.24). The other three activities range from core-close to
disposable activities. The latter one, the disposable activity, is an activity readily available on
the market. Outsourcing partners can be considered as all partners who might be considered as
possible suppliers, even an in-house supplier such as an independent business unit of the com-
pany (Arnold, 2000). Moreover, the outsourcing design is strongly influenced by the market
and company structure and will give a guideline for up-coming outsourcing decisions.
One of the primary driving forces for companies to rely increasingly on outsourcing is gai ning access to the
resource collections of specialised actors (Gadde and Håkansson 2001, p.125). Authors who support
this argument note that the outsourcing company can concentrate on its own resources in order
to improve and exploit its capabilities. According to Quinn and Hilmer (1994) a company’s
focus on core activities has two main strategic advantages. First, a company who concentrates
solely on its own resources and capabilities will maximise its return on these internal re-
sources and second, the further developed capabilities may function as an entry barrier.
The author’s empirical data, derived from interviews conducted with middle- and senior-
management in the automotive industry, illustrates that activities concerned with product de-
velopment including design, international marketing, innovation and technology and the final
assembling of vehicles are considered core. Activities concerned with the IT function are seen
by most of the interviewed managers as core close whereas supporting activities are found in
outsourcing
subject
core-close activities
com-
pany
core
outsourcing
object
outsourcing
partner
(supplier)
core-distinct activities
disposable activities
degree of
manufacturing penetration
outsourcing
design
The quest for competitiveness – Identifying core and supporting activities 11
areas such as assembling parts or systems, design modelling, human resources, finance and
accounting, manufacturing and customer services.
Outsourcing supporting activities in the automotive sector
The majority of outsourcing activities are concerned with outsourcing supporting activities
(also called non-core activities) as shown in several surveys such as conducted by PA Consult-
ing (1996) and Cox and Lonsdale (1997). Companies which are well-positioned in their mar-
kets have already understood and embraced the concept of outsourcing non-core activities
(Quinn and Hilmer 1994). Baden-Fuller et al. (2000) stated the example of manufacturing
firms outsourcing standardised sub-components to specialised firms which guaranty appropri-
ate service levels at lower cost than an in-house production.
Managers often feel more comfortable taking their first outsourcing steps in relatively un-
important activities of the firm rather than to outsource crucial parts of the business. With the
increase of companies outsourcing supporting activities such as catering, security or mainte-
nance, a large facilities management industry evolved. Therefore, [s]uppliers are offering to take
over both the management and the operation of whole business premises (Lonsdale and Cox 2000,
p.448). The most prominent part of supporting services outsourcing is undoubtedly infor-
mation technology (IT). However, IT outsourcing is seen as controversial when discussed by
practitioners and academics. Many argue that IT should not be seen as a supporting activity as
it is vital to retain the competitive edge of the company. Suggestions cover the bandwidth
from keeping it in-house or partly outsourcing to complete outsourcing.
According to Lankford and Parasa (1999), functions such as payroll and benefits, human
resources and cafeteria services are ‘ripe’ to be contracted out. Overall, it can be noted that
supporting functions serve companies better if they are given to an outside organisation that is
able to perform the tasks more timely and cost-efficiently. Interviewed managers in the auto-
motive industry state that activities such as catering, security or cleaning and maintenance of
buildings were completely outsourced to external providers as automotive companies have no
competences and no benefits in carrying out these activities. Despite outsourcing supporting
activities, the pressure on firms to further improve efficiency and their competitive advantage
still remains present (Baden-Fuller et al. 2000). Many practitioners and academics are asking
the question if there are some aspects of the primary supply chain (the company’s core busi-
ness) which could be or even should be outsourced.
The core competence concept in the automotive sector
The opinion of traditional approaches to strategy which state that outsourcing aspects of the
core business is risky is supported by many practitioners and academics. Companies may lose
their competencies and become hollow (Prahalad and Hamel 1990). Furthermore, negative
outsourcing effects can be experienced when competitors are able to steal key aspects of the
firm's knowledge base (Bleeke and Ernst 1991). As core activities mostly lie in the area of
core competence which are important for the survival of the company, an understanding of the
core competence concept is vital. The approach of Prahalad and Hamel (1990) suggests that
only goods and services which are considered as core competences should be produced inter-
nally. Alexander and Young (1996) highlight the different ways in which the term core is de-
fined by managers. The four meanings of ‘core activities’ due to Alexander and Young (1996)
are (i) activities traditionally performed internally with long-standing precedent, (ii) activities
critical to business performance, (iii) activities creating current or potential competitive ad-
vantage, and (iv) activities that will drive the future growth, innovation or rejuvenation of the
enterprise.
Considering the fast-moving automotive market, Granstrand et al. (1997) add a new term to
the concept of ‘core’ or ‘distinctive’ competences as suggested by Prahalad and Hamel.
Granstrand et al. (1997) recommend that the management in large firms needs to sustain a broader (if
less deep) set of technological competences in order to coordinate continuous improvement and innovation in
the corporate production system and supply chain (p.18). Moreover, they see the necessity for the
management to do this in order to explore and exploit new opportunities emerging from scientific and
technological breakthroughs (Granstrand et al. 1997, p.18). Granstrand et al. (1997) recommend
that large companies should become multi-technology companies and further introduce us to a
more accurate description of large multi-technology firms’ competences which they call dis-
tributed technological competences. The so-called distributed technological core competences
can be found in a number of technological fields, in different parts of the organisation and
among several distinctive strategic objectives of the corporation.
Outsourcing core activities
Practitioners and academics, who challenge the traditional point of view about outsourcing,
argue that outsourcing core activities could dramatically improve the shape of the company,
combined with leanness and agility. This perspective draws on the industrial network perspec-
tive where external suppliers are able to provide benefits for the outsourcing company and
gives access to the exploitation of network competences. However, for most firms, but not for
all, the protection of core activities is a necessity.
Academics have theoretically and empirically researched four different circumstances
where outsourcing what seems to be core gives the company a competitive advantage over its
rivals. The four circumstances proposed by Baden-Fuller et al. (2000) are as follows:
Catch-up: a company has fallen behind its rivals despite a slow moving environment;
Changing value chains: changing customer needs call for a firm to respond;
Technology: new technology made the firm's core obsolete;
Emerging markets: rapid changes in customer demand and technology make new markets
available to the firm.
The quest for competitiveness – Identifying core and supporting activities 13
Baden-Fuller et al. (2000) developed a 2x2 matrix (Table 2) which plots the four different
circumstances depending on the two dimensions which are technology environment and cus-
tomer needs.
Managers, whose company find itself in one or more of the circumstances described in Ta-
ble 2, should consider outsourcing part of the company’s core activities in order to gain back
the firm's competitive advantage. Moreover, Baden-Fuller et al. (2000) argue that when the
core competencies that a company currently possesses fade away, outsourcing could bring
back its competitive advantage. This view is supported by Alexander and Young (1996), urg-
ing managers not to stop outsourcing if it comes to core activities. According to their research,
problems occur mostly at the start of outsourcing as managers’ lack a consistent definition of
the notion of 'core activities'.
Technology is evolutionary
Technology has become revolution-
ary
Customer needs are
evolving
Catch-up
What should be a core competence
is in fact of little value, because of
firm failure. The firm must catch-
up with rivals who have evolved
faster.
Key issue: Building new compe-
tence.
Technology Shifts
The key technologies required to ful-
fil customer needs have changed. The
company needs to buy-in new skills
to stay in the competitive race.
Key issue:
Key issue: Accessing new compe-
tence.
Customer needs are
changing rapidly
Changing Value Chain
Economics
The source of profit is shifting in
the value chain. What was critical
is now peripheral, and it is now
outsourced
Key issue: Cost.
Emerging Markets
Typically the firm does not possess
either technology or customers to ful-
ly exploit the market. Rivals are fre-
quently in similar positions.
Key issue: Fast track innovations to
get to the market first.
Table 2 Four categories of outsourcing core activities (From Baden-Fuller et al. 2000, p.287)
Additionally, managers in the automotive industry should be aware of the shifting nature of
core activities, prescribing the concept of ‘core’ in a dynamic and evolving rather than static
manner. Various academics (e.g. Lonsdale and Cox 1998) urge managers to focus on not only
on what is core today, but on what will be core to the company in the future. Disadvantages of
that interpretation are most obvious in fast moving technology markets, where companies may
lose their competitive advantage ‘over night’. Therefore, companies should adopt a more stra-
tegic view on outsourcing which may include the transfer of an entire product, a product line,
or even an entire plant to achieve strategic value.
The author’s empirical research in the automotive industry illustrates that certain activities
in a company’s core functions are partly or completely outsourced to external providers. For
instance, the production of body modules, chassis, seats and interiors is commonly outsourced.
However, automobile manufacturers state that the production of drive trains and their compo-
nents still remain mostly in-house, as it is seen as one of the core activities. In contrast, almost
no automobile manufacturer invests in stamping and pressing machinery anymore. Another
point of interest for the automobile industry and its supplier is the growth of a few mega sup-
pliers who will be given major pieces, such as sub-assembling complete systems.
Furthermore, interviewees cite that logistics activities including warehouse and inventory
management are partly outsourced. Interviewed managers expect a significant rise of outsourc-
ing to external logistics providers within the next few years due to their efficiency and cost
savings. While considering IT activities as close to core, companies in the automobile industry
have outsourced most activities concerned with hardware and application maintenance, docu-
mentation development and application support to external providers. In addition, repetitive
and generic activities in the accounting and finance as well as human resources function, such
as billing processing, revenue accounting and payroll processing, have been partly or com-
pletely outsourced. However, even more specific activities, for instance, activities associated
with the credit and collection function have been partly outsourced as companies expect to
leverage the best-in-class credit and collection capabilities of its outsourcing providers.
In conclusion, a prerequisite for successful outsourcing is that the company is able to iden-
tify which are the core and supporting activities, adapting a dynamic and forward looking
management style. Additionally, problems might occur if companies outsource today’s sup-
portive activities which become important in the future. In-sourcing of these activities in the
future is likely to be a costly, time-consuming and problematic process. Once outsourcing de-
cisions are agreed upon, the careful selection of the appropriate partner is vital to outsourcing
success. Outsourcing does not finish with signing the contract and should rather be seen as a
relationship that includes support for the partner with expertise and managerial resources.
A snapshot of outsourcing benefits and risks
The following sections critically review and discuss benefits and risks closely linked to the
managerial practice of outsourcing. This should by no means be considered either a complete
list of benefits and risks of outsourcing or a judgement for one of the sides, but instead facili-
tate managers’ well-grounded outsourcing decisions. Practitioners and academics alike argue
in favour of both benefits and risks of outsourcing. Whereas, one side argues that outsourcing
helps to reduce costs, capacity on demand and it might give access to advanced technology,
the opposite side describes outsourcing management practice as risky. Outsourcing risks in-
clude the loss of control, the loss of flexibility, the loss of qualified personnel and the loss of
competitive advantage. It can be stated that most potential benefits are mirrored by potential
risks.
Outsourcing benefits
The perceived benefits of outsourcing have changed over the years. In the beginning of the
outsourcing trend, a couple of decades ago, the cost factor was perceived as the ultimate rea-
A snapshot of outsourcing benefits and risks 15
son to outsource. Nowadays, companies see additional benefits in the opportunity to concen-
trate on their core business, the increased service predictability and the ability to effectively
manage costs. In order to reap the best possible advantages for the outsourcing company, it is
suggested that automotive companies develop flexible outsourcing partnerships and pro-
grammes that are designed to meet their unique needs and cultures.
Cost efficiency and economies of scale
As mentioned above, cost reduction has been the predominant motive for outsourcing (Lank-
ford and Parsa 1999). Managers often find that outside firms produce more cost-effectively
than a company could do in-house. A typical example is the acquisition of capital intensive
investment in computer hard- and software which can be avoided or at least minimised by the
company if data processing services would be contracted out.
In order to achieve cost reduction and maintain required standards, the suppliers need to
have access to superior cost drivers, such as economies of scale, learning and low cost loca-
tions (Jennings 2002). As discussed in this chapter, the outsourcing company should include
the transaction costs, the sum of negotiation, search and contract enforcement costs in order to
identify the overall outsourcing expenses and to arrive at a realistic cost picture. In addition,
the benefit from supplier’s investment and innovation (Lonsdale and Cox 2000), and access to
skills (Akomode et al. 1998, Embleton and Wright 1998) can improve cost performance as
well as productivity and speed. However, managers have to acknowledge that a trade-off be-
tween cost and time can sometimes lead companies to outsource activities which could have
been done cheaper internally, because the activities can not be completed in-house in a certain
timeframe.
A quantification of cost savings is highly dependent on the specific company and the out-
sourced activities. However, the following figures provide managers with a rough estimate
about possible cost reductions. Blumberg (1998) proposes that outsourcing can lead to 20%-
40% reduction in costs, while Lankford and Parsa (1999) state more moderate figures propos-
ing ‘at least 15%, and sometimes 20-25%’ savings. However, many academics and practition-
ers warn not to expect savings at all as less than half of the outsourcing companies achieve a
reduction in overall expenditure.
Focus on core
Outsourcing can help the management of a firm redirect its attention to its core competencies instead of having
to possess and keep updated with a wide range of competencies (Kotabe and Mol 2005, p.120). One of
the most controversial issues of outsourcing is the debate over core activities. Despite the
problematic definition of a company’s core, the question of whether to outsource core or not is
discussed at length by practitioners and academics. An organisation’s resource availability is
mostly limited and resource expansions are made upon the value of the area which further
leads to a necessary distinction between core (valuable) and supporting (less valuable) activi-
ties. Most authors also state that outsourcing is a way to reduce tied up investments and scarce
resources, especially when needed for core business activities (Johnson 1997). This view is
further underlined by the author’s empirical findings from the automotive industry. Interview-
ees state that outsourcing helped to relieve managers’ responsibility for repetitive or generic
business tasks, allowing them to concentrate on high-level management and other value-added
activities.
Product and service quality improvements
The specialised knowledge of the contractor is one of the major advantages of outsourcing.
The specialised knowledge can be seen as the main requisite to deliver high quality products
and services. Quality improvements are cited by many authors as a motivation for outsourcing
(McFarlan and Nolan 1995, Embleton and Wright 1998). The author’s empirical findings
showed that the better the skill set of an external provider, the higher the quality standard that
may result. Interviewees emphasised that external suppliers may bring about higher quality
due to their expertise and experience in an activity.
According to Akomode et al. (1998), the outsourcing company enjoys various benefits re-
garding quality improvements. Empirical findings based on the author’s work prove that sup-
pliers are eager to please the outsourcing companies due to several aspects. First, external
suppliers always attempt to avoid cost and time consumption. Second, in order to meet the
contractual standards, suppliers favour higher quality to avoid rework. Third, suppliers like to
build long-term relationships with the outsourcer and will see the delivered good as an adver-
tisement.
Time-to-market reduction and reduction of capacity constraints
Speed improvements are recognised by most authors as benefits of outsourcing, leading to im-
proved time-to-market (Lonsdale and Cox 2000), improved performance (McFarlan and Nolan
1995) and greater productivity and time savings (Embleton and Wright 1998). Outsourcing
can overcome the company’s own capacity constraints in meeting volume of sales. Companies
which produce for markets with seasonal or cyclical patterns (demand fluctuation), resulting in
under used in-house capacity, may consider outsourcing as beneficial (Fill and Visser 2000).
The potential for improved flexibility may apply not only to the volume of output, but also the
ability of the organisation to change the product range in response to market conditions. Many
of the flexibility benefits are associated with long-term strategic rather than short-term opera-
tional flexibility (Brown 1997). In order to reap the benefits of flexibility, outsourcing should
be considered as a long-term, strategic decision.
Resources, innovation availability and risk allocation
One of the most obvious reasons to outsource is non-availability of the required resources
within the own company (Johnson 1997). Companies in the automotive sector are undergoing
constant reorganisations which lead to divested resources. Moreover, outsourcing relationships
can deliver innovative product and/or service solutions that emerge from the combined
knowledge and expertise, existing within different organisations. Companies might profit from
involving suppliers in product and process developments. Along the same line, working close-
ly with the outsourcing provider might help to share outsourcing associate risks related to
changing market conditions, new government regulations, shifting financial conditions and
evolving technologies. Empirical data shows that companies in the automotive industry may
also benefit from external providers’ innovative ideas and the extended market access through
providers’ distinctive networks.
A snapshot of outsourcing benefits and risks 17
Outsourcing risks
Despite the extensive list of benefits for a company provided by outsourcing, several reports
(e.g. PA Consulting Group 1996) state that only a small percentage of managers felt that out-
sourcing had met its objectives, with the majority reporting a mediocre outcome. Criteria to
measure outsourcing success and failure are as diverse as opinions about outsourcing. Never-
theless, companies that wish to outsource need to consider both sides and evaluate their own
position in terms of benefits and risks involved.
Missed cost targets
The failure to achieve anticipated cost improvements frequently occurs during outsourcing
(Cross 1999). Outsourcing contracts usually aim for cost savings of about 25% as discussed in
the benefits section of outsourcing (Lankford and Parsa 1999). However, empirical results
show that the average saving only accounts for less than 10% percent and a large portion of
outsourcing clients may only break even or worse, find their costs increased (e.g. Embleton
and Wright 1998, Ketler and Walstrom 1993). Moreover, interviewees reported that on some
occasions, outsourcing costs exceeded the expected level while quality standards were not ful-
filled.
The author’s empirical evidence illustrates that large companies in the automotive industry
found prospective outsourcing providers unable to match their own internal economies of
scale and many specialist suppliers did not have an effective scale greater than that of their
customers. In addition, the costs invested to support the ongoing relationship and the suppli-
er’s premium often made outsourcing more expensive (Embleton and Wright 1998, Akomode
et al. 1998). Rising transaction and coordination costs make it necessary to prioritise outsourc-
ing providers. Furthermore, companies should be aware of the risk to being leveraged by their
suppliers, particularly when outsourcing into a limited supply market (Lonsdale and Cox
2000). They state that having assured the contractual business, suppliers may pursue addition-
al services, which lead to cost escalations. Additional services may include consultancy or
business process re-engineering. In order to avoid such practices, the relationship should be
protected by contractual safeguards and the formulation of exact specifications that guide both
partners.
Low quality standards and increased time-to-market
The risk of interruptions of supply or capacity limitations are problems which may occur when
companies outsource activities (Embletoon and Wright 1998). Several suppliers will attempt
to reduce costs, not through cost-effective management, but rather by using cheaper resources
and materials. Furthermore, empirical data collected by the author shows that the anticipated
speed, frequently based on an assumption of supplier scale of operations, may not be achieved.
Reasons are manifold and might include the augmenting complexity of transactions between
the outsourcing company and the supplier or simply the overoptimistic estimates of individu-
als. The use of external suppliers can also imply a reduction in the opportunities with which to
achieve differentiation through the use of more widely available activities and components
(Alexander and Young 1996). Additionally, the author’s empirical findings illustrate that in-
creased requirements for time-consuming and complex quality controls can diminish the cost
reduction of the outsourcing arrangement.
Loss of competences
If tasks are not too specialised, the remaining work force can be moved to a different project,
which helps to maximise workers productivity. In addition, transferable skills of workers can
be leveraged. For instance, companies who completely outsourced their IT staff are forced to
use external expertise when minor IT problems occur. For companies pursuing outsourcing,
inter-functional competences might get lost as resources, tangible or human, will be contracted
out to a supplier.
Loss of intellectual property rights and confidentiality leaks are another outsourcing risk,
particularly if the supplier provides services to the company’s competitors (Lonsdale and Cox
2000). Additionally, outsourcing may lead to a loss of internal coherence which means that the
gap left by the outsourced activity negatively influences other internal departments or groups.
Empirical findings show that managers in the automotive industry are aware of the risk that
valuable data might fall into competitors’ hands, particularly if the supplier provides services
to the company’s competitors. Managers reported that tight data guidelines had to be incorpo-
rated into the outsourcing contract to avoid data misuse.
Danger of dependency and declining brand share
Another main risk of outsourcing is concerned with the danger of becoming dependent on
suppliers, thus leading to reduced control over activities. Therefore, managers should be aware
of how firms can become dependent on suppliers. According to Lonsdale (1999), outsourcing
into limited supply market, poor internal alignment, and contractual incompetence in the face
of different degrees of asset specificity are the main ways in which dependency emerges. In-
terviewees in the automotive industry underline the potential risk for outsourcing companies
to lose control and consequently to become dependent on suppliers.
Closely linked to the loss of organisation’s core competences and the danger of dependen-
cy, is the risk of a declining brand share. Quinn and Hilmer (1994) illustrate that companies
outsourced manufacturing of parts, which seemed at that time to be minor components and
taught suppliers how to achieve the required quality. Later these companies found their sup-
pliers were unable or not willing to supply them as required. By that stage the company had
already lost the ability to produce the parts in-house and could not stop its suppliers from sup-
porting competitors or entering downstream markets on their own. Therefore, managers have
to take into consideration the dynamic nature of core activities when making outsourcing deci-
sions.
Problems of reversibility and flexibility
Outsourcing a specific responsibility and adjusting or even erasing the internal resources ac-
cordingly is often linked with the loss of strategic flexibility and reversibility (Embleton and
Wright 1998). Managers should consider the risks associated with the difficulties of rebuilding
or acquiring internal resources and knowledge needed to bring the outsourced activity back in-
to the company. With any outsourcing agreement the company losses some control to its out-
Managerial implications for (beneficial) outsourcing decisions 19
sourcing provider. Lonsdale and Cox (2000) argue that the time of contract renegotiation,
where the balance of power has changed, is most critical for outsourcing companies. Compa-
ny’s options may be limited and the decision to cancel the outsourcing contract may no longer
be practical as the outsourcing provider has acquired all the necessary skills. Companies may
be ‘forced’ to renew the contract as no other supplier will be able to fulfil the required stand-
ards.
Managerial implications for (beneficial) outsourcing decisions
The amalgam of theoretical and empirical findings presented in this chapter provides several
managerial implications. The following recommendations should support middle- and senior-
management in the automotive sector in deriving benefits and eliminating (or at least mitigat-
ing) various risks from outsourcing activities.
More attention should be drawn to the selection of outsourced activities.
Outsourcing core activities is highly risky as it puts the company on the fast track to the ‘hol-
low organisation’. Companies should carefully assess each activity to ensure that an appropri-
ate decision making process led to the outsourcing decision. Consequently, managers have to
fully understand what is involved in each activity and how they are linked to each other before
they can be outsourced. Many of the outsourcing risks experienced by companies in the auto-
motive sector could have been avoided by proper activity assessment. If management is inex-
perienced in outsourcing activities, they should start with more repetitive activities which are
not core to the company.
Assessing future core activities properly.
Core activities should be evaluated in both a static perspective of what is core at the present
and also what could become core in the future. Companies positioned in the fast-moving, in-
novative, technology-based automotive market, should embrace the concept of dynamic capa-
bilities. This perspective will help a company to move and stay ahead of its competitors in the
future.
Be careful with customer-centric areas.
Attention should also be drawn to outsourcing consumer-centric areas such as call centres.
Outsourcing the interaction between the company and its customers is risky. Quality guide-
lines must be in place and the outsourcing provider must convey the ‘culture and message’ of
the outsourcing company.
Setting out clear (contractual) guidelines.
Prior to outsourcing activities, companies should have a clear understanding of how to manage
and measure the provider’s performance. The outsourcing company should set clear guidelines
and requirements for the outsourcing provider in areas such as product quality and service lev-
el standards. This will help to avoid future misunderstandings and conflicts about require-
ments and standards which have to be met by the provider. Obligations for each side should be
made clear and contractually enforceable safeguards should be installed to protect the ongoing
relationship.
Outsourcing providers should be selected carefully.
Conclusion 21
Once management has decided on what to outsource, a careful selection of the outsourcing
provider is vital for business success. The author’s empirical data illustrates that financial sta-
bility, expertise and the ‘cultural fit’ are the major assessment criteria to be used for outsourc-
ing providers. Outsourcing companies should have a thorough assessment scheme in place
which follows a rigorous, structured process. In return, several outsourcing risks can be elimi-
nated or at least minimised. Managers should be aware that once activities are outsourced,
bringing activities back into the company or switching outsourcing providers is a time and
cost consuming process.
Outsourcing relationships have to be managed.
In order to minimise the risks inherent in outsourcing, the relationship between the two parties
has to be managed carefully. The provider should be supervised and assessed to ensure that
contractual requirements are met. Management should not neglect the communication and cul-
tural barriers between the outsourcing co mpany and the provider as they often cause problems
and lead to underperforming providers. The barriers are often more pronounced when the out-
sourcing company and the provider are geographically and culturally distant.
Conclusion
In the face of rising profit pressures, automotive companies are increasingly pursuing out-
sourcing practice as part of their BTO strategies. This also allows them to gain access to sup-
pliers’ innovative research and technology expertise, to focus resource allocation toward core
activities and to cut down expenses.
Outsourcing activities are concerned with both, companies’ core and supporting activities.
In addition to outsourcing repetitive activities in several areas, more analytic or strategic activ-
ities in areas such as finance and accounting or human resources are contracted out to external
providers. The automotive industry even partly outsources core activities where resources and
capital are not sufficient to carry out these activities in-house.
This chapter considered the benefits and risks of outsourcing for BTO. It examined core
and supportive activities of business functions such as manufacturing, human resources, in-
formation technology, logistics, accounting and finance. Apart from the cost and quality as-
pects and the possibility of focusing on core activities, companies may enjoy several other
outsourcing benefits. According to the author’s empirical data, outsourcing offers access to
specialist knowledge and expertise, to innovative technologies and processes and to econo-
mies of scale to perform activities cheaper and at better quality.
But caution must temper enthusiasm for outsourcing. In the highly risky and customer-
conscious automotive market management should be aware of several outsourcing risks. Out-
sourcing raises fears among managers across sectors about losing power and control over ac-
tivities and proprietary knowledge. Furthermore, poor performance delivery of external pro-
viders is feared by automobile companies as they can not tolerate mistakes, especially where
regulations have to be met and vehicles delivered more quickly to the final customer. Inter-
viewees stated that a thorough provider assessment as well as integrated quality tests for all
outsourced activities helped companies to achieve beneficial results.
Consequently, empirical findings indicated that outsourcing presents a significant challenge
in managing relationships with external providers and underlined the need for managers to be
fully aware of the risks and benefits involved in outsourcing activities. An understanding of
the concept of core and supporting activities, as presented in this chapter, is vital to arrive at
well-grounded, beneficial outsourcing decisions that will enable companies to transition to
BTO production.
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Figure 1
Asset specificity
Uncertainty
Infrequency
O
R
Transaction costs
<
Production costs
Out-
sourcing
Transaction Costs Factors
Decision Out-
come
Transaction costs
>
Production costs
In-house
Production
Trade-off
Conclusion 25
Figure 2
outsourcing
subject
core-close ac-
tivities
co
m-
pa-
ny core
outsourcing
object
outsourcing
partner
(supplier)
core-distinct activi-
ties
disposable activ-
ities
degree of
manufacturing pene-
tration
outsourc-
ing
design
Resource-based
view (RBV)
Resource-
dependency theo-
ry (RDT)
Transaction cost
theory (TCT)
Industrial Network
Approach
Possibilities to
outsource
Resources which
miss some or
several attributes
such as rare,
non-imitable,
and non-
substitutable
Resources which
miss some or
several attributes
such as rare,
non-imitable, and
non-substitutable
Activities that do
not require assets
specific investment
Issue of what the
company can mobi-
lise through the net-
work
Activities and re-
sources which can be
produced more effi-
ciently within the
network
Main variables
& fundamental
units of analysis
Resources
(internal)
Resources in the
external environ-
ment
Asset specificity,
Frequency,
Uncertainty
(Transactions)
Network,
Relationships and
Interactions (activi-
ties/ actors/ re-
sources)
Overall industrial
network structure
(How to mobilise re-
sources from other
actors?)
Limits to out-
sourcing
Core competences
and activities that
do not have these
attributes, but
cannot be sourced
from the market
(Critical) core re-
sources and valued
resources
Activities that re-
quire specific in-
vestment (high
specificity)
Core competences
which would make
the company redun-
dant
Risks
Firm may be-
come ‘hollow’,
Loss control over
strategic core,
Loss of access
to assets
Loss advanta-
geous position
(resources),
Loss control
over strategic
resources,
Become depend-
ent on too many
firms
Transaction cost
more than produc-
tion cost,
Outsourcing activi-
ties with high
specificity
Firm does not man-
age the relationships
properly and fails to
mobilise resources,
activities and actors
Table 1
Conclusion 27
Technology is evolutionary
Technology has become revolution-
ary
Customer needs are
evolving
Catch-up
What should be a core competence
is in fact of little value, because of
firm failure. The firm must catch-
up with rivals who have evolved
faster.
Key issue: Building new compe-
tence.
Technology Shifts
The key technologies required to ful-
fil customer needs have changed. The
company needs to buy-in new skills
to stay in the competitive race.
Key issue:
Key issue: Accessing new compe-
tence.
Customer needs are
changing rapidly
Changing Value Chain
Economics
The source of profit is shifting in
the value chain. What was critical
is now peripheral, and it is now
outsourced
Key issue: Cost.
Emerging Markets
Typically the firm does not possess
either technology or customers to ful-
ly exploit the market. Rivals are fre-
quently in similar positions.
Key issue: Fast track innovations to
get to the market first.
Table 2
