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Determination of aliphatic hydrocarbons in urban runoff samples from the "Le Marais" experimental catchment in Paris centre
Abstract
Aliphatic hydrocarbons were assessed in runoff and waste waters from an urban catchment located in Paris. Runoff were sampled from different types of urban surfaces (11 roofs representing four different covering materials, two courtyards and six streets). Waste water samples were collected at the catchment outlet during dry and wet weather periods as well. This paper gives an overview of the results on the concentration and distribution points of view for both the particulate and the dissolved phases. Results were discussed on the basis of the median. Accordingly, the temporal variability was taken into account. Thus, the concentration medians ranged from 345 to 827, from 297 to 790, and from 393 to 1,359 microg L(-1) in the roof, courtyard and street samples, respectively. The levels found at the catchment outlet during dry and wet weather periods were of the same order of magnitude, i.e. 700 microgL(-1). The particulate phase represented 85% of the total aliphatic hydrocarbon content whatever the sample.
... Households reporting at least one member with gastrointestinal symptoms in the month prior to sampling were more likely to have Aeromonas spp. Gromaire et al. (2001) and Moilleron et al. (2002). ...
... Both roof characteristics and chemical properties of organic pollutants seem to affect the level of trace organics in roof runoff (Moilleron et al. 2002). Polkowska et al. (2002) found petroleum hydrocarbons like toluene higher for runoff from a roof covered with tar paper. ...
... Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), largely the product of incomplete combustion of petroleum, oil, coal, etc., represent the largest class of suspected carcinogens prevalent in urban atmospheric deposition. PAH concentration was found high for clay tiles in an urban locality in Paris (Moilleron et al. 2002). The higher concentration of these compounds in roof runoff compared to that in precipitation indicated that these were released from roofing materials (Fö rster 1996;Polkowska et al. 2002). ...
... Households reporting at least one member with gastrointestinal symptoms in the month prior to sampling were more likely to have Aeromonas spp. Gromaire et al. (2001) and Moilleron et al. (2002). ...
... Both roof characteristics and chemical properties of organic pollutants seem to affect the level of trace organics in roof runoff (Moilleron et al. 2002). Polkowska et al. (2002) found petroleum hydrocarbons like toluene higher for runoff from a roof covered with tar paper. ...
... Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), largely the product of incomplete combustion of petroleum, oil, coal, etc., represent the largest class of suspected carcinogens prevalent in urban atmospheric deposition. PAH concentration was found high for clay tiles in an urban locality in Paris (Moilleron et al. 2002). The higher concentration of these compounds in roof runoff compared to that in precipitation indicated that these were released from roofing materials (Fö rster 1996;Polkowska et al. 2002). ...
There has been a growing interest, especially in developing countries, in rooftop rainwater harvesting as an alternative source of drinking water. This paper reviews the available information on the water quality of rooftop rainwater harvesting systems, various factors that affect the physico-chemical and microbiological quality of harvested water are discussed. Different contaminants including heavy metals and trace organic pollutants in the roof runoff reported from different parts of the world are compared. The review shows that the quality of harvested water from roof catchments often does not meet the drinking-water guideline values. Most of the studies reveal that harvested water is heavily contaminated microbiologically by a variety of indicator and pathogenic organisms unless special care is taken during collection and storage of rainwater. Heavy metals and trace organics could also pose problems in some cases. The review thus indicates that the purity of rainwater harvested from rooftops should not be taken for granted, and analysis of the harvested water especially for microbiological contamination should be undertaken. Appropriate treatment of collected rainwater would be necessary to make the harvested rainwater fit for drinking. The review also shows the need for further research on proper design and maintenance strategies to minimise contamination of roof-collected rainwater supplies.
... Households reporting at least one member with gastrointestinal symptoms in the month prior to sampling were more likely to have Aeromonas spp. Gromaire et al. (2001) and Moilleron et al. (2002). ...
... Both roof characteristics and chemical properties of organic pollutants seem to affect the level of trace organics in roof runoff (Moilleron et al. 2002). Polkowska et al. (2002) found petroleum hydrocarbons like toluene higher for runoff from a roof covered with tar paper. ...
... Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), largely the product of incomplete combustion of petroleum, oil, coal, etc., represent the largest class of suspected carcinogens prevalent in urban atmospheric deposition. PAH concentration was found high for clay tiles in an urban locality in Paris (Moilleron et al. 2002). The higher concentration of these compounds in roof runoff compared to that in precipitation indicated that these were released from roofing materials (Fö rster 1996;Polkowska et al. 2002). ...
textlessptextgreaterThere has been a growing interest, especially in developing countries, in rooftop rainwater harvesting as an alternative source of drinking water. This paper reviews the available information on the water quality of rooftop rainwater harvesting systems, various factors that affect the physico-chemical and microbiological quality of harvested water are discussed. Different contaminants including heavy metals and trace organic pollutants in the roof runoff reported from different parts of the world are compared. The review shows that the quality of harvested water from roof catchments often does not meet the drinking-water guideline values. Most of the studies reveal that harvested water is heavily contaminated microbiologically by a variety of indicator and pathogenic organisms unless special care is taken during collection and storage of rainwater. Heavy metals and trace organics could also pose problems in some cases. The review thus indicates that the purity of rainwater harvested from rooftops should not be taken for granted, and analysis of the harvested water especially for microbiological contamination should be undertaken. Appropriate treatment of collected rainwater would be necessary to make the harvested rainwater fit for drinking. The review also shows the need for further research on proper design and maintenance strategies to minimise contamination of roof-collected rainwater supplies. © IWA Publishing 2006.textless/ptextgreater
... For example, calculations based on GIS data (Agentschap Informatie Vlaanderen 2019) showed that roofs accounted for 18% of the total urbanized area in the whole region of Flanders (northern part of Belgium). Also literature data indicates the significance of roofs as urban surface: a roof cover percentage (ratio between roof surface and the total urban surface) between 11 and 54% was reported for individual catchments and metropolitan areas (Moilleron et al. 2002;Kingett Mitchell and Associates 2003;Rose et al. 2003;Akbari et al. 2003;Lamprea and Ruban 2011a) and on a global scale, roofs were found to account for almost 28% of the urbanized area (Jacobson and Ten Hoeve 2012). Furthermore, roofs often represent almost half of the urban impervious surface (Moilleron et al. 2002;Kingett Mitchell and Associates 2003;Farreny et al. 2011;Lamprea and Ruban 2011a). ...
... Also literature data indicates the significance of roofs as urban surface: a roof cover percentage (ratio between roof surface and the total urban surface) between 11 and 54% was reported for individual catchments and metropolitan areas (Moilleron et al. 2002;Kingett Mitchell and Associates 2003;Rose et al. 2003;Akbari et al. 2003;Lamprea and Ruban 2011a) and on a global scale, roofs were found to account for almost 28% of the urbanized area (Jacobson and Ten Hoeve 2012). Furthermore, roofs often represent almost half of the urban impervious surface (Moilleron et al. 2002;Kingett Mitchell and Associates 2003;Farreny et al. 2011;Lamprea and Ruban 2011a). This translates to significant runoff volumes originating from roofs. ...
Roof runoff is generally perceived as a relatively clean source of water and is therefore often discharged or used without any treatment. Available data from literature however show that roof runoff can be contaminated by a wide range of (micro)pollutants, and in concentrations often exceeding surface water quality and/or drinking water standards. In this review, information on more than 100 contaminants, including trace metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pesticides, phthalates, alkylphenols and alkylphenolethoxylates, is summarized and a meta-analysis provides quantitative proof that roof runoff is a major contributor to stormwater quality deterioration. The two prime sources of roof runoff contamination are leaching from roofing materials and atmospheric deposition. A detailed discussion on material-pollutant relationships is given and a benchmarking method is presented which ranks roofing materials based on their runoff quality. Treated wood roofing and metallic rooftops (copper and zinc) were found to have the highest impact on water quality. Atmospheric deposition is also discussed in detail and includes a summary on the concentration levels in deposition for more than 400 pollutants such as trace metals, pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. As a conclusion, it can be argued that the general perception on roof runoff quality is inaccurate and that its quality aspects should not be overlooked when roof runoff is used or discharged.
... Under the European Water Framework Directives (WFD), transports of contaminants and the quality of urban water runoff are of major environmental concern for municipalities Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues (Moilleron et al., 2002). To be able to meet the "good ecological status" including the discharges of stormwater (Gregoire et al., 2008), the EU WFD (Directive 2008/105/EC) requires monitoring contaminants that affect the surface water quality (Gasperi et al., 2012). ...
... Stormwater and runoff are sources of water degradation to the receiving natural water due to contamination (Magaud et al., 1997;Kim et al., 2007;Lewitus et al., 2008;Miguntanna et al., 2010;Moilleron et al., 2002). Mainly, urbanization is pointed as a major cause (Goonetilleke et al., 2005). ...
Traditional Chinese medicine residue (TCMR) is the solid substances remaining after the extraction of pharmaceutical ingredients from medicinal plant materials, which include abundant soil nutrients. However, TCMR is nearly lost as domestic garbage, which not only occupies a large amount of land but also leads to the waste of resource, as well as causing the eco-environment potential pollution. Therefore, we implemented this study to assess whether TCMR could be used as an organic fertilizer in agricultural practices for realizing waste resource utilization, improving soil fertility, and enhancing plant growth. The results showed that (1) application of TCMR could improve soil fertility, particularly in enhancing the soil contents of SOM, TN, NaOH-N, NaHCO3-P, and HNO3-K; (2) the higher application ratios of TCMR (0.8–1.0%) that increased the soil EC values would cause the risk of soil secondary salinization; (3) the lower application ratios of TCMR (0.2–0.6%) has a better positive effect on improved the maize seedlings’ physiological parameters and photosynthetic performance than the higher application ratios; (4) although application of TCMR lead to the heavy metal (Cr, Pb, Cd, As, and Hg) content increased in soil, there was no ecology risk under below 0.8% application ratio, compared with the China soil risk control standards, geo-accumulation index (Igeo), and pollution load index (PLI). Thus, TCMR could potentially be used as an organic fertilizer in agricultural practices. This approach is an effective strategy not only for achieving TCMR disposal but also for realizing waste resource utilization, as well as for improving soil fertility and plant growth.
... Rooftop runoff quality is dependent on both the roof type and the environmental conditions (not only the local climate but also the atmosphere pollution). Most research on the quality of rainwater roof runoff has been carried out in East Asia (for example: Appan, 2000;Kim et al., 2005a;Kim et al., 2005b), in Central, Eastern and Northern Europe (for example : Albrechtsen, 2002;Fö rster, 1996Fö rster, , 1999Gromaire et al., 2001;Moilleron et al., 2002;Polkowska et al., 2002;Ward et al., 2010;Zobrist et al., 2000), in the United States (for example: Chang et al., 2004;Van Metre and Mahler, 2003) and in Oceania (for example : Evans et al., 2006;Kus et al., 2010;Magyar et al., 2007;Simmons et al., 2001). However, there is scarce data from Southern Europe, in particular from Spain. ...
... w a t e r r e s e a r c h 4 5 ( 2 0 1 1 ) 3 2 4 5 e3 2 5 4 pollutants, since pollutants are dominantly bound to particles (Moilleron et al., 2002). The amount of TSS is small in all roofs (median TSS <5 mg/L), particularly compared to the review. ...
a b s t r a c t Roofs are the first candidates for rainwater harvesting in urban areas. This research inte-grates quantitative and qualitative data of rooftop stormwater runoff in an urban Medi-terranean-weather environment. The objective of this paper is to provide criteria for the roof selection in order to maximise the availability and quality of rainwater. Four roofs have been selected and monitored over a period of 2 years (2008e2010): three sloping roofs e clay tiles, metal sheet and polycarbonate plastic e and one flat gravel roof. The authors offer a model for the estimation of the runoff volume and the initial abstraction of each roof, and assess the physicochemical contamination of roof runoff. Great differences in the runoff coefficient (RC) are observed, depending mostly on the slope and the roughness of the roof. Thus, sloping smooth roofs (RC > 0.90) may harvest up to about 50% more rainwater than flat rough roofs (RC ¼ 0.62). Physicochemical runoff quality appears to be generally better than the average quality found in the literature review (conductivity: 85.0 AE 10.0 mS/cm, total suspended solids: 5.98 AE 0.95 mg/L, total organic carbon: 11.6 AE 1.7 mg/L, pH: 7.59 AE 0.07 upH). However, statistically significant differences are found between sloping and flat rough roofs for some parameters (conductivity, total organic carbon, total carbonates system and ammonium), with the former presenting better quality in all parameters (except for ammonium). The results have an important signifi-cance for local governments and urban planners in the (re)design of buildings and cities from the perspective of sustainable rainwater management. The inclusion of criteria related to the roof's slope and roughness in city planning may be useful to promote rain-water as an alternative water supply while preventing flooding and water scarcity. (R. Farreny). A v a i l a b l e a t w w w . s c i e n c e d i r e c t . c o m
... Urban stormwater contaminant sources include atmospheric deposition, material leaching, direct spills, tire abrasion, the use of chemicals like pesticides for surface maintenance and illegal deposits (Müller et al., 2020) ( Figure 1 -1). When looking at the urban runoff generating surfaces, rooftops are typically representing approximately half of the impervious surface in urbanized areas (Farreny et al., 2011;Kingett Mitchell and Associates, 2003;K Lamprea and Ruban, 2011;Moilleron et al., 2002). Therefore, roof runoff should be considered as a significant source of contaminants present in stormwater and might thus contribute to urban water quality deterioration. ...
An increasing water demand, in combination with a decreasing amount of qualitative fresh water, is a major driving force in the search for alternative water sources. Rainwater, and more specifically roof runoff, is one of these alternatives. Although rainwater runoff is generally presumed to be a relatively clean source of water in terms of physicochemical quality, an extensive literature review in the scope of this doctoral research revealed that roof runoff could be potentially contaminated by a wide range of organic as well as inorganic contaminants. In the same literature review, both atmospheric deposition and material leaching were identified as important contaminant sources. Nevertheless, for many materials, information on leaching was scarce. Therefore, this doctoral research aimed to contribute to the knowledge in this field by using laboratory leaching tests, which allowed to identify contaminants, benchmark materials and identify the dominant leaching mechanisms. In addition, also the leaching behavior under real outdoor conditions was studied. This allowed to identify the effect of external factors such as the preceding meteorological conditions. In order to study these outdoor conditions, a pilot scale set-up consisting of different small roofs equipped with different roofing materials was used. As also atmospheric deposition was considered here, roof runoff quality from different roofing materials was evaluated in view of its utilization and discharge. Next to the identification of contaminants and contaminant sources, this doctoral research also investigated the potential to produce water fit-for-use from roof runoff by applying conventional treatment and disinfection techniques.
... Among the aliphatics, the long-chain (> C 16 -C 35 ) compounds were measured in high concentrations compared to other compounds; 190-53,000 µg/L (Table S2). These compounds are not often measured in stormwater, but it is not unusual to find total petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations exceeding 1,000 µg/L in road runoff (Flanagan et al., 2018, Snilsberg and Gryteselv, 2016, Moilleron et al., 2002. The concentrations of aliphatic petroleum hydrocarbons in the four stormwater samples taken during the weekly street sweeping autumn 2017 did not vary much and were in the range from 200 till 300 µg/L (Table S4). ...
Road areas are pollution hotspots where many metals, organic pollutants (OPs) and nano/microparticles accumulate before being transported to receiving waters. Particles on roads originate from e.g. road, tyre and vehicle wear, winter road maintenance, soil erosion, and deposition. Street sweeping has the potential to be an effective and affordable practice to reduce the occurrence of road dust, and thereby the subsequent spreading of pollutants, but there is currently little knowledge regarding its effectiveness. In this paper we investigate the potential of street sweeping to reduce the amounts of OPs and nano/microparticles reaching stormwater, in a case study sampling road dust and washwater from a street sweeping machine, road dust before and after sweeping, and stormwater. The compound groups generally found in the highest concentrations in all matrices were aliphatics C5–C35 > phthalates > aromatics C8–C35 > PAH-16. The concentrations of aliphatics C16–C35 and PAHs in washwater were extremely high at ≤ 53,000 µg/L and ≤ 120 µg/L, respectively, and the highest concentrations were found after a 3-month winter break in sweeping. In general, fewer aliphatic and aromatic petroleum hydrocarbons and PAHs were detected in road dust samples than in washwater. The relative composition of the specific PAH-16 suggests tyre wear, vehicle exhausts, brake linings, motor oils and road surface wear as possible sources. The study indicates that many of the hydrophobic compounds quantified in washwater are attached to small particles or truly dissolved. The washwater contains a wide range of small particles, including nanoparticles in sizes from just below 1 nm up to 300 nm, with nanoparticles in the size range 25–300 nm present in the highest concentrations. The results also indicated agglomeration of nanoparticles in the washwater. The street sweeping collected a large amount of fine particles and associated pollutants, leading to the conclusion that washwater from street sweeping needs to be treated before disposal.
... When leaked engine oil comes in contact with road dust, they are strongly adsorbed to the dust. Approximately 80% to 95% of total hydrocarbon load in roadway stormwater runoff is attached to particulates, indicating road dust is a primary vector of transport of petroleum hydrocarbon to receiving waterbodies (Moilleron, Gonzalez, Chebbo, & Thévenot, 2002;Stenstrom, Silverman, & Bursztynsky, 1984). Elevated levels of oil and grease in urban watershed sediments can be used as a tracer for inputs of roadway stormwater runoff. ...
Urban road dust is highly enriched with organic pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), petroleum hydrocarbons, and herbicides that are released primarily from vehicles and/or road management practices. Analysis of sediment cores from urban watersheds clearly demonstrates that increase of pollutant input correlates with traffic volume increase. Pollutants in urban road dust are a significant threat to the health of aquatic organisms. Contaminated urban road dust is mobilized by stormwater runoff and transported into local receiving waterbodies (e.g. streams, rivers, lakes, and estuaries). Concentrations of PAHs in sediments receiving stormwater runoff from densely populated urban areas are high enough to impair the health of aquatic organisms and frequently exceed sediment quality guidelines. To restore streams and rivers impaired by roadway runoff, concentrations of pollutants in road dust need to be reduced through implementing a combination of regulatory policies and management actions. One approach would be to phase out existing pollutant sources such instituting a ban on the use of coal tar-based asphalt road seal coat containing high levels of PAHs. Instituting the use of environment friendly natural herbicides with only spot treatment to target weeds rather than broadcast application and restoration of native vegetation, as integrated roadside vegetation management programs. Adoption of these practices would result in significantly reduced herbicide contamination of roadway stormwater runoff. An alternate option is the removal of contaminants from stormwater runoff before they are delivered to receiving waterbodies using best management practices (BMP) such as retention ponds, detention basins, and grass swales. In densely populated urban areas, however, these BMPs may not be easily adopted due to multiple constraints such as lack of spaces and high land cost. In this case, proprietary BMPs such as media filter, wet vault, and vortex separator, which are also known as manufactured treatment devices, can should be considered.
... 45c). The value of the Carbon Preference Index (CPI), defined as the odd/even carbon number n-alkanes (Bray and Evans 1961) equal to 1.03, confirms the petrogenic fingerprint (Moilleron et al. 2002 ;Jeanneau et al. 2006, Jeanneau et al. 2008. Moreover, the distribution of pentacyclic triterpanes (especially hopanes) is dominated by isomers in geological conformation (17α, 21β and 17β, 21α) whereas a biological conformation (17β, 21β) is not detected (figure 45b). ...
Les biofilms bactériens se développent sur toute interface liquide-solide dès que les conditions sont favorables. Ils correspondent à des assemblages de microcolonies qui baignent dans une matrice extracellulaire polymérique. Parmi les facteurs contrôlant le développement des biofilms, l'hydrodynamique est un paramètre clé qui affecte la morphologie et la composition du biofilm. Nous nous intéressons plus particulièrement dans cette thèse à l'influence du gradient de vitesse pariétal sur la formation du biofilm. Pour cela, nous utilisons un réacteur Couette-Poiseuille qui permet de travailler sous écoulement laminaire stable dans différentes conditions d'écoulement. Les biofilms obtenus après circulation d'eaux usées, sont prélevés sur des coupons et visualisés par microscopie confocale à balayage laser. Différents paramètres caractérisant la morphologie du biofilm sont déterminés après reconstruction 3D de leur structure à l'aide du modeleur GOCAD. Nous montrons que le transport convectif constitue une étape essentielle dans la formation initiale du biofilm, et qu'un gradient pariétal nul permet d'inhiber le développement de celui-ci.
... 3,4 Oil contamination of water (i.e., marine, surface, groundwater) is a widespread concern and the effect of hydrocarbons on both aquatic ecosystems and human health is well established. [5][6][7] Understanding the environmental impact of hydrocarbons requires effective monitoring tools that can provide both timely and reliable quantitative information, and this has led to the development of a range of sensors for the measurement of hydrocarbons in various aqueous systems. [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15] The discrimination and quantification of a single hydrocarbon molecule in the presence of many other hydrocarbons that are chemically similar is a major challenge irrespective of the type of sensor. ...
One major issue that precludes the application of chemical sensors for the analysis and quantification of dissolved hydrocarbon contaminants in environmental waters is interference from similar types of organic molecules. Polymer-based sensing films are used extensively to interact with certain classes of organic compounds; however, these materials have not been able to achieve sufficient selectivity when analysing complex multicomponent hydrocarbon mixtures in real aquatic systems. Polymer composite materials are an alternative approach towards improving the selectivity and analytical response of sensors for hydrocarbons. In this study, calixarene-polyisobutylene composite films were synthesised via a solvent casting method and the structural and sorption properties were investigated using infrared spectroscopy. The type and amount of calixarene in polyisobutylene was varied and it was shown that the calixarene content in the film plays a significant role on the hydrocarbon sorption mechanism. Scanning electron microscope and optical microscope studies revealed the formation of calixarene microparticles within the polymer film and that this may be responsible for the observed differences in hydrocarbon sensitivity. We demonstrate using toluene and ethylbenzene that the molecular selectivity of polymer films can be tailored by adjusting the calixarene type and concentration.
... In addition, many roofing materials are treated with biocides or similar to deter algal growth and these biocides can leach into roof runoff [23]. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have also been found in runoff from a variety of roof materials [24,25], but surprisingly, asphalt shingles have not been found to supply PAHs [26]. ...
... In addition, many roofing materials are treated with biocides or similar to deter algal growth and these biocides can leach into roof runoff [23]. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have also been found in runoff from a variety of roof materials [24,25], but surprisingly, asphalt shingles have not been found to supply PAHs [26]. ...
The popularity of rainwater harvesting has increased in recent years due to increasing demands on strained water supplies and infrastructure and increasing awareness of the benefits of green stormwater infrastructure. Active rainwater harvesting systems, in which the water is captured and stored in a tank or similar container, can be a major source of water in urban areas supplying non-potable end uses such as irrigation, toilet flushing, and cooling towers. Harvested rainwater is also used for potable uses commonly in developing nations and rarely in developed nations. The benefits of rainwater harvesting systems extend beyond water conservation to include alleviating the impact of stormwater runoff on surface waters, contributing to groundwater preservation, and reducing dependency on utility potable water and consequently energy conservation. This chapter focuses on active rainwater harvesting systems design and discusses environmental impacts and economic and life cycle assessment of rainwater harvesting systems. The chapter concludes with recommendations on future research needs.
... Par ailleurs, les teneurs en HA totaux mesurées dans les sédiments de SR semblent être légèrement inférieures à celles observées dans les eaux de ruissellement de chaussées collectées au niveau des avaloirs. Lors des travaux menés dans le quartier du « Marais » (4 e arrondissement, Paris), les niveaux de pollution en HA totaux de la fraction particulaire des eaux ruisselées ont, en effet, été estimés à 400-600 µg.g -1 ms (Gonzalez, 2001 ;Moilleron et al., 2002). Cette différence est probablement la conséquence des phénomènes de dégradation auxquels sont soumises les molécules organiques au cours de leur stockage dans la chambre de collecte. ...
During rain events, great quantities of hydrocarbons (aliphatic and aromatic) and heavy metals enter the combined sewer by way of roof and road runoff. The decrease of these inputs, necessary to the combined sewer overflow reduction, requires knowledge of pollutant nature and origin. This work, focused on lift station sediments, aims to characterised the contents and fingerprints of pollutants associated to road runoff. Hydrocarbon contamination levels, calculated at 80 and 24 μug.g-1 dw for aliphatic and aromatic compounds, are of the same order of magnitude than those reported in the literature. In the same way, heavy metal contamination levels are in a good agreement with previous studies. Nevertheless, a decrease of Pb contents, induced by the recent restriction of the Pb traffic emission, and an increase of Cu contents, probably linked to the occurrence of intensive brake lining abrasion, were noticed. Moreover, hydrocarbon fingerprints underline the variability of the hydrocarbon origin. Indeed, aliphatic distributions reflect the combination of biologic (vegetal) and petrogenic (lubricating oils, gasoline, etc.) inputs, while aromatic distributions indicate a major pyrolytic origin with traces of petrogenic contaminations.
... To Farreny et al. (2011), the quality of rainwater on roofs depends on the type of roof and the environmental conditions (both the local climate and air pollution). Most research on the quality of rainwater on roofs has been conducted in Asia (Appan 2000;Kim et al. 2005a, 2005b), in Central, Eastern and Northern Europe (Forster 1996, 1999Zobrist et al. 2000;Gromaire et al. 2001;Albrechtsen 2002;Moilleron et al. 2002;Polkowska et al. 2002;Ward et al. 2010), in Southern Europe, specifically Spain (Farreny et al. 2011;Morales-Pinzón et al. 2012a), in the United States (Van Metre & Mahler 2003;Chang et al. 2004) and Oceania (Simmons et al. 2001;Evans et al. 2006;Magyar et al. 2007;Kus et al. 2010). In Latin America, specifically Colombia, some rainwater harvesting research has been performed and reported, such as the studies by Castañeda (2000); Lara Borrero et al., 2007;Torres et al., 2011;and Morales-Pinzón et al. (2012b). ...
An analysis of the utilisation and quality of rainwater in different collection systems located in the Pereira-Dosquebradas (Colombia) conurbation was conducted to evaluate the conditions in these systems and thus determine whether rainwater is safe water for domestic, commercial and industrial purposes. The quality of rainwater and its relation to selected variables (roofing material, material deposits, piping material and amount of precipitation) were evaluated. Six buildings with different types of roofing (zinc, polycarbonate or fibre cement) that have installed systems to capture rainwater were selected for the evaluation. According to the results, the sampled water is suitable for different uses. In cities, rainwater can be adapted and eventually used as an alternative water source, thereby reducing dependence on local and external sources.
... Several studies report that the highest levels of PAHs in urban runoff are usually found in the vicinity of industrial areas or intense urban traffic. Moreover, some of them alert for the fact that roof characteristics also seem to affect the level of trace organics in roof runoff (Zobrist et al., 2000;Moilleron et al., 2002;Polkowska et al., 2002). ...
... This suggests that the export of the contaminants from the catchment during storm events was not dominated by their amount temporarily "stored" within the catchment, i.e. it is not "supply-limited" (Robien et al., 1997), although partial "first flushes" were evident for some contaminants in some storms. A number of other studies have also reported that there is often no correlation between the length of time between storms and the storm event concentrations and/or loads (Hunter et al., 1979;Herrmann, 1981;Hoffman et al., 1984;Hewitt and Rashed, 1992;Moilleron et al., 2002). ...
This thesis examines the geochemistry of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in urban
stormwater. The manner in which PAHs partition between the particulate, colloidal and truly
dissolved phases is likely to affect their transport and fate in the environment and the degree
to which they exhibit toxicity to aquatic organisms.
Stormwater samples were collected from an urban catchment during eight rainfall events and
from a river draining a largely rural catchment. During rainfall, the levels of PAHs and the
heavy metals Pb, Cu and Zn (also important contaminants in stormwater) rose significantly
and were correlated with the suspended sediment (SS) concentrations. PAH fingerprint ratios
confirmed the debris collecting on urban streets as the principal source of the contaminants,
which exhibited a signature typical of combustion-derived particles and motor vehicle
crankcase oil. An old gasworks was an additional source of PAHs in the urban catchment.
The quantities of PAHs and heavy metals discharged into the local harbour were much higher
from the urban catchment, whereas the rural catchment contributed more SS.
The partitioning of the PAHs between the SS and the water was similar to that previously
reported for other aquatic systems. However, particulate organic carbon exerted little
influence, suggesting that combustion-derived soot particles may play an important role. This
study is the first to have investigated the in-situ partitioning of PAHs between the truly
dissolved and colloidal phases (that bound to dissolved organic carbon (DOC)) in urban
stormwater. The separation of the two phases, using a new C18 disk-based method, showed a
small percentage of the total concentration of each PAH was bound to DOC. Differences in
the partitioning between the urban and rural catchments were not explained by estimating the
degree of aromaticity of the DOC, suggesting that aliphatic groups may also be involved in
the PAH binding. Naphthalene bound to the DOC more strongly than expected, possibly
because this smallest PAH was binding to sites inaccessible to the larger PAHs.
The influence of the hydrophobicity of the PAHs was clearly evident when considering the
partitioning between all three phases. The truly dissolved phase was dominated by the soluble
low molecular weight (LMW) PAHs, whereas the particulate phase was enriched in the less
soluble high molecular weight (HMW) PAHs. Contrary to what was expected based on the
hydrophobicity of the PAHs, the importance of the colloidal phase decreased for the HMW
PAHs because the particulate phase was a better sorbent.
While the contaminant concentrations in the stormwater frequently exceeded relevant water
quality guidelines, the levels in the bioavailable truly dissolved phase indicated that acute
toxic impacts were unlikely. However, PAHs and zinc may lead to chronic effects in some
organisms. The presence of moderate amounts of LMW PAHs in the truly dissolved and
colloidal phases is likely to result in the addition of moderate quantities of PAHs to the
harbour water column. Those bound to SS settle out rapidly once discharged into the harbour,
resulting in localised sediment contamination which is likely to be exhibiting chronic effects
on benthic organisms.
... Urban runoff typically contains petroleum hydrocarbons. Road runoff is usually polluted by particles formed as a result of tire and road surface degradation (Lovett and Kinsman 1990;Klimaszewska et al. 2007a;Polkowska et al. 2001bPolkowska et al. , 2005Polkowska et al. , 2007aKiss et al. 1996;Garban et al. 2002;Grynkiewicz et al. 2002aGrynkiewicz et al. , 2002bBomboi and Hernández 1991;Stephenson et al. 1999;Lygren et al. 1990;Stotz 1987;MacKenzie and Hunter 1979;Moilleron et al. 2002;Achten et al. 2001;Lopes et al. 2000;Borden et al. 2002;Thurston 1999;Legret and Pagotto 1999;Pagotto et al. 2000;Hvitved-Jacobsen et al. 1994;Tsiouris et al. 2002;Backstrom et al. 2003;Matthes et al. 2002;Maltby et al. 1995a, b;Harrison and Wilson 1985;Hewitt and Rashed 1992;Latimer et al. 1990;Turer et al. 2001;Singh et al. 2000;Mikkelsen et al. 1996;Dannecker et al. 1996;Gromaire-Mertz et al. 1999;Legret et al. 1996;Fernández Espinosa et al. 2002;Smith (Karlsson et al. 2000;Ferrari et al. 1996;Winiwarter 1998;Nickus et al. 1997Nickus et al. , 1998Loye-Pilot and Morelli 1988;Colin et al. 1987Colin et al. , 1990Lacaux et al. 1987;Jaffrezo and Colin 1988;Losno et al. 1991;Maupetit and Delmas 1994;Maupetit et al. 1995;Sanussi et al. 1996;Plaisance et al. 1997;Ulrich et al. 1998;Negrel and Roy 1998;Cabon 1999;Charron et al. 2000;Moldan et al. 1988Moldan et al. , 1987Etsu et al. 2004;Kopacek et al. 1997;Berge 1988;Joranger and Semb 1989;Mosello et al. 1988;Udisti et al. 1991Udisti et al. , 1993Decet 1994;Kashulina et al. 1998;Balestrini et al. 1998;Helliwell et al. 1998;Balls 1989;Lee and Longhurts 1992;Beverland et al. 1997;Stedman et al. 1990;McArdle et al. 1998;Collect et al. 1993;Atteia 1994;Doscher et al. 1995;Dikaiakos et al. 1990;Smirnioudi and Sickos 1992;Samara et al. 1992;Linberg et al. 1990;Hofmann et al. 1991;Schumann and Ernst 1993;Marquardt et al. 1996;Kramer et al. 1996;Weijers and Vugts 1990;Ruijgrok and Romer 1993;Stedman 1991;Lim et al. 1991;Thies et al. 1998;Kalina and Puxbaum 1994;Alebic-Juretic 1994;Pio et al. 1991;Gregurek et al. 1998;Camarero and Catalan 1993;Durana et al. 1992;Casado et al. 1996;Carratala et al. 1998;Amezaga et al. 1997;Fernandes-Gutierez et al. 2000). Table 5. Results of determination of selected pesticides and their metabolites in precipitation samples collected in Europe and North America. ...
Water is transferred from the atmosphere to the land surface mainly via various forms of atmospheric precipitation, but the contribution of surface condensation and direct deposition (e. g., dew, hoar frost, occult precipitation, etc.) should not be neglected. Wet deposition (including surface condensation and direct deposition) scavenges pollutants from the atmosphere and contributes significantly to their transport. The composition of the runoff formed on contact with various surfaces might be further modified by the components of dry deposition collected on these surfaces or by substances leaching from the surfaces themselves. Samples of wet precipitation or direct deposition might be good indicators of the state of the atmospheric environment and can be used to trace the migration of chemicals emitted from various sources, including anthropogenic ones. This paper discusses the unique challenges present at every stage of the analytical procedures used for the determination of the pollutants in atmospheric precipitation and deposition. A brief review of the results of pollutant and toxicity determination in samples of various forms of atmospheric precipitation and (or) deposition is also included, together with a discussion of the application of chemometric techniques for data interpretation. The aim of this paper is to help interested readers discover the field of pollutant determination in wet deposition and to broaden the scope of their existing research.
... Além disso, a poluição urbana no Brasil, por exemplo, provoca a deterioração considerável da água bruta, já que corpos aquáticos localizados à jusante de centros urbanos apresentam diminuição considerável de qualidade. Fontes pontuais são importantes vetores de poluição destas águas, porém o escoamento superficial proveniente de áreas urbanas, embora variável em termos de composição da água drenada, pode carregar uma série de substâncias poluentes (Moilleron et al., 2002;Revitt et al., 2002;Malmon et al. 2003). ...
Uma grande quantidade de poluentes surge em sistemas aquáticos naturais por meio de fontes pontuais e difusas. As fontes pontuais são facilmente identificadas e diagnosticadas e, por este motivo, é possível estabelecer medidas de controle ou, em alguns casos, ações que visam punir os responsáveis pelo descarte de resíduos que não se enquadram à legislação vigente. Ao contrário das fontes pontuais, as fontes difusas são aquelas cuja origem não pode ser facilmente identificada. Emissões difusas ocorrem em extensas áreas e, associadas à chu-va, chegam aos corpos de água de forma intermitente. Devido a estas características, a identi-ficação destas fontes constitui um grande desafio em estudos ambientais. Este artigo temático busca divulgar a problemática envolvendo fontes difusas de poluição devido à importância destas cargas poluidoras para a compreensão holística dos processos dinâmicos de poluição e manutenção da integridade do ambiente. POLUIÇÃO DE ÁGUAS NATURAIS Inúmeras atividades antrópicas são capazes de intro-duzir no ambiente uma série de substâncias e materiais de diferentes características que ali não existiam ou que já estavam presentes, mas sob quantidades menores. Estas atividades contribuem para a contaminação de compartimentos ambientais. Quando os agentes conta-minantes causam mudanças perceptíveis no ambiente receptor dizemos que o ambiente encontra-se poluído. Estas mudanças nas características do meio físico pode-rão gerar diferentes tipos de impactos sobre a biota, podendo ser prejudicial a algumas espécies, mas não a outras. De qualquer maneira, ao considerar a existência de processos interdependentes entre várias espécies bióticas, estes impactos sempre levarão a desequilíbrios ecológicos. Resta saber quão intenso será o processo poluidor e se o mesmo poderá ser assimilado sem con-sequências deletérias ao ambiente ou àqueles que dele dependem. O aumento vertiginoso da população e da industriali-zação nas últimas décadas, assim como surgimento de situações de escassez hídrica em regiões densamente povoadas levaram a um cenário no qual grande parte das atividades antrópicas tem levado, invariavelmente, à poluição de águas naturais superficiais e subterrâneas. Os mecanismos de poluição das águas podem ser di-vididos em duas categorias. A primeira consiste nas fon-tes de poluição pontuais que podem ser identificadas e diagnosticadas, sendo que, em muitos casos, é possível estabelecer ações corretivas ou mesmo punitivas. O des-carte de esgotos domésticos ou industriais, tratados ou não, são exemplos de fontes pontuais. O esgoto bruto pode provocar a deterioração de ambientes aquáticos urbanos seja por meio do aporte de compostos antropo-gênicos ou por alterações na especiação de uma série de substâncias e elementos químicos presentes na coluna de água (Sodré e Grassi, 2007). Sodré e colaboradores (2012) avaliaram a especiação do cobre ao longo do Rio Iguaçu à montante e à jusante da cidade de Curitiba e observaram que o aporte de esgoto bruto a partir da área urbana levou a mudanças significativas na distribu-ição e no destino final do metal na coluna de água. Mar-kich e Brown (1998) avaliaram a qualidade das águas nos rios Hawkesbury e Nepean na Austrália e
... Além disso, a poluição urbana no Brasil, por exemplo, provoca a deterioração considerável da água bruta, já que corpos aquáticos localizados à jusante de centros urbanos apresentam diminuição considerável de qualidade. Fontes pontuais são importantes vetores de poluição destas águas, porém o escoamento superficial proveniente de áreas urbanas, embora variável em termos de composição da água drenada, pode carregar uma série de substâncias poluentes (Moilleron et al., 2002;Revitt et al., 2002;Malmon et al. 2003). ...
Uma grande quantidade de poluentes surge em sistemas aquáticos naturais por meio de fontes pontuais e difusas. As fontes pontuais são facilmente identificadas e diagnosticadas e, por este motivo, é possível estabelecer medidas de controle ou, em alguns casos, ações que visam punir os responsáveis pelo descarte de resíduos que não se enquadram à legislação vigente. Ao contrário das fontes pontuais, as fontes difusas são aquelas cuja origem não pode ser facilmente identificada. Emissões difusas ocorrem em extensas áreas e, associadas à chu-va, chegam aos corpos de água de forma intermitente. Devido a estas características, a identi-ficação destas fontes constitui um grande desafio em estudos ambientais. Este artigo temático busca divulgar a problemática envolvendo fontes difusas de poluição devido à importância destas cargas poluidoras para a compreensão holística dos processos dinâmicos de poluição e manutenção da integridade do ambiente.
... n-Alkanes are detected with chain length from C12 to C29 (Fig. 6c). The value of the carbon preference index, defined as the odd/even carbon number n-alkanes (Bray and Evans 1961) equal to 1.03, confirms the petrogenic fingerprint (Moilleron et al. 2002;Jeanneau et al. 2006Jeanneau et al. , 2008. Moreover, the distribution of pentacyclic triterpenes (especially hopanes) is dominated by isomers in geological conformation (17α, 21β and 17β, 21α) whereas a biological conformation (17β, 21β) is not detected (Fig. 6b, Table 5). ...
Analytical scanning and transmission electron microscopy, sequential chemical extraction, and pyrolysis–gas chromatography on solvent-extractable organic matter are used to provide both direct and indirect speciation of heavy metals and organic matter in sewage-suspended solids and in biofilms taken from an urban sewer in an emerging country. Compared to developed countries where the domestic activities represent the main source of heavy metal pollution in wastewater, the combined sewer system of an emerging country also integrates significant contributions originating from the private drinking water supply system (Zn, Cu, Cr, and Ni), industrial discharges (Cu, Mn), and road dust transported by street washing (Pb). The relative importance of those sources changes drastically over time as evidenced by the difference in metal levels recorded between weekday and weekend effluents. Nevertheless, sewer biofilms are found to provide a good averaging of contaminant loads and they can be used as environmental archives. The speciation study reveals the predominance of neoformed minerals such as sulfides and phosphates and highlights the strong biogeochemical dynamics that takes place within the sewer system. Electron microscope observations of heavy metal-bearing phases proved to be necessary to provide a consistent interpretation of chemical extraction results. The molecular characterization of the solvent-extractable organic matter from biofilms reveals the presence of classical fingerprints of domestic activity such as fecal sterols and detergents but also confirms a major contribution of petroleum by-products consistent with a traffic-related pollution.
... Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), largely the product of incomplete combustion of petroleum, oil, and coal, represent the largest class of suspected carcinogens prevalent in urban atmospheric deposition. PAH concentration was found high for clay tiles in an urban locality in Paris (Moilleron et al., 2002). The higher concentration of these compounds in roof runoff compared with that in precipitation indicated that these were released from roofing materials (Förster, 1996;Polkowska et al., 2002;Polkowska et al., 2006;Polkowska et al., 2009). ...
Contrary to the popular perception that rainwater harvested from rooftops is nearly as clean as pure water, a number of contaminants can be present in such a water—this is borne out by numerous studies reviewed by the authors. Once this fact is acknowledged, it is possible to control the water quality and to bring it within acceptable levels with simple and inexpensive devices. The authors address these issues. Besides reviewing the status of the quality of harvested rainwater, they trace the pathways by which pollutants can enter in a rainwater harvest. In this backdrop the authors discuss the strategies to manage the water quality at preharvest as well as postharvest stages.
... Hydrocarbons exclusively originate from atmospheric deposition . This result is of a prime importance because, in previous experimentation carried out on the same types of roofs, Moilleron et al. (2002) speculated that hydrocarbon contents in roof runoff might be driven by the roof material.Figure 6 presents the metal fluxes measured on the roof runoff and the winter metallic deposition – individually marked by black dots. Metal fluxes are compared between the two kinds of roofs: slate tiles with lead fittings (roof 1) and combination of zinc sheets and slate tiles (roof 2) (Table I). ...
Hydrocarbons (aliphatic and aromatic) and metals (heavy metals and major elements) were measured in both atmospheric deposition and roof runoff in central Paris (France). Atmospheric deposition (wet and dry) was collected from December 2001 to October 2002 and roof runoff was sampled on three buildings with different covering materials, i.e., slate tiles and zinc sheets. This paper gives an overview of the results on the flux and distribution points of view for both atmospheric deposition and roof runoff. Results show that atmospheric fluxes of hydrocarbons and major elements increase during cold seasons, due to residential heating occurrence, while heavy metals, whose major sources have constant emission fluxes, exhibit steady atmospheric loads throughout the year. Moreover, hydrocarbon fingerprints reveal mainly biogenic and pyrolytic origins for aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, respectively. The results about roof runoff contamination suggest that the scavenging processes for hydrocarbons and metals are dependent on rainfall amount rather than on the rain event characteristics (number, intensity, duration), and dry deposition weakly contributes to the pollutant loads in roof runoff. Results also highlight that both metallic and slate roofs do not act as a source of hydrocarbons and major elements—exclusively originating from atmospheric deposition—while they act as a source of some heavy metals. Zinc-covered roofs largely release Zn and Ti, while slate roofs mainly release Pb, Ti and Cu. Whatever the material used for roof covering, roof runoff presents high Ni and V loads due to the vicinity of the chimney stacks of heating boilers.
... H6 locates in farmland area, whereas S3 is close to Fengtai city with the population of 750,000 (Statistical Bureau of Anhui Province, 2010). Therefore, urban sewage (Eganhouse and Kaplan, 1982) or runoff (Moilleron et al., 2002) is the potential contributor to the residue of aliphatic hydrocarbons in sediment for Huaihe River, China. During the past decade, aliphatic hydrocarbons in river ecosystem have been of great concern. ...
Linear alkylbenzenes (LABs) were determined in 61 surface sediment samples from Chaohu Lake, one of the largest and most euthrophication shallow lakes in China. Amongst these samples, thirty-five were collected with a 0.05 × 0.05° latitude/longitude resolution and 26 surface sediments were obtained at three main estuaries of inflowing rivers. The total concentration of LABs (defined as ΣLAB) ranged from 18.5 to 5720 ng g(-1) dry weight. Concentrations of ΣLAB in the western region of the lake were much higher than those in the eastern region, and the highest value was at a location in the estuary of Nanfei River, indicating that substantial amounts of municipal wastewater were discharged to Chaohu Lake via riverine runoff. Low ratio of the concentrations of internal isomers versus external isomers of C(12)-LABs ((6-C(12)+5-C(12))/(4-C(12)+3-C(12)+2-C(12)) (defined as I/E) suggested that only 16% of LABs were biodegraded on average in the sediment. Therefore untreated/inadequately treated sewage was discharged into the lake. Log-based concentrations of ΣLAB were positively correlated with log-based I/E ratios. On the other hand, negative correlative relationships were found between the log-based concentrations of ΣLAB and both log-based ΣC(13)-LAB/ΣC(12)-LAB and (5-C(13)+5-C(12))/(5-C(11)+5-C(10)) ratios (referred as L/S ratio), probably implicating that the ΣC(13)-LAB/ΣC(12)-LAB and L/S ratio should be used with caution. The total amount of ΣLAB annually deposited to Chaohu Lake's sediment was estimated at 0.2 tons yr(-1), accounting for 2.4% of the total amount of LABs contained in detergents used within the entire watershed. Therefore, the majority of LABs discharged from the watershed still remained in the environmental media.
Rainwater harvesting systems can alleviate strain on existing water sources, but fully realizing the potential of alternate water sources requires considering potable use of harvested rainwater. This chapter will review microbial and chemical contaminants found in rainwater harvesting systems and research on treatment of harvested rainwater. Finally, using the varied regulations across the USA, this chapter will review common requirements for potable rainwater harvesting systems. The chapter will conclude with recommendations for both effective regulation and system design.KeywordsAlternative water sourcesCisternsPotable waterRainwater harvestingRegulationWater treatment
This chapter presents an exploratory review of the position of rainwater harvesting in meeting water security challenges. It first examines the concept of rainwater harvesting, focusing largely on micro‐catchment harvesting systems. The chapter then focuses on the importance of rainwater harvesting and quality assessment of harvested rainwater. This is followed by a report on the authors’ examination of the problems associated with rainwater harvesting. The rainwater collection approach includes macro‐catchment, micro‐catchment, and in‐situ harvesting systems. The chapter describes the concept of rainwater harvesting in terms of micro, macro, and rooftop approaches to collection, storage, management, and use of rainwater from existing knowledge. It also explores the importance and quality assessment of and presents the problems associated with rainwater harvesting in different regions of the world, especially among developing countries, as well as arid and semi‐arid countries.
Urban runoff is known as an important contributor to diffuse a wide range of pollutants to receiving environments. Hydrocarbons are common contaminants in runoff mainly transported coupled to suspended particles and sediments. The aim of the study was to investigate the distribution and sources of Aliphatics in the sediments of Tehran’s runoff drainage network. Thirty surface sediment samples were collected along with three main sub-catchments of Tehran during April 2017. The concentrations of n-Alkanes (nC-11-nC-35) and isoprenoids were determined by GC-MS, and their possible emission sources were evaluated using the biomarkers and the diagnostic ratios. Total aliphatic hydrocarbon (n-alkanes + isoprenoids) concentrations were found in the range of 2.94 to114.7 mg.kg−1 dw with the total mean of 25.4 mg.kg-1 dw in the whole catchment. The significant concentrations of n-alkanes between n-C20 and n-C24 indicate the predominance of petrogenic origins at all stations. The CPI values range from 0.7 to 3, except the station C1S28 (CPI = 4.2). The CPI values were less than 1.6 at 70% of the stations which indicate the petrogenic nature of the aliphatic origins. Pr/Ph and LMW/HMW ratios ranged from 0.3 to 2.5 and 0.3 to 5.6 confirmed the petrogenic sources as the major origin of Aliphatics in urban runoff sediments. The ratios of n-C17/Pr and n-C18/Ph vary from 0.4 to 2.1 and 0.2 to 2.1, respectively which showed that petroleum contamination is mainly due to the degraded oil products with a lesser extent of fresh oil. Results revealed that the aliphatic hydrocarbons in the sediment samples were derived mainly from petrogenic sources such as leakage and spillage of fuels and petroleum derivatives with a relatively low contribution of biogenic sources. Vascular plants’ waxes and microbial activities are identified as the most important biogenic sources of the samples. The mean concentrations of total organic carbon were 13.3,12 and14.7 mg.g−1 dw in the sub-catchments 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Pearson correlation test demonstrated a weak correlation between the concentrations of n-alkanes and TOC (P > 0.05) with a correlation coefficient of less than 0.54 for all the sub-catchments.
Currently available sources of water face extreme pressures around the globe because of oblivious human activities as well as changing climate. Rainwater harvesting system (RWHS) carries a huge potential to enhance surface and groundwater resources in the regions having a poor water supply. Recently, several countries have started to promote the updated implementation of such practice to tackle the problem of growing water demand. These considerations motivated our enthusiasm for looking at its current circumstances and the possibility of RWHS in the future. In this regard, the study aims to identify the evidence gap among different determinants (climate change, reliability, water quality and financial viability) intertwined with RWHS. In the proposed paper, studies related to the significance of RWHS amidst scarcity of water around the globe, published in the valued journals from 2000 to 2020, are reviewed. We found that the RWHS becomes economically viable when certain steps and risks assessment methods are executed in planning and maintaining this system. The study concludes that drinking water sufficiency is possible if a sustainable drinking water supply system is built via RWHS.
The transfer of two insecticides (acetamiprid and chlorpyrifos) from cotton fields to a nearby water reservoir together with the ecotoxicological risks involved for this receiving environment were assessed by measuring their concentrations in runoff water and sediment samples collected both at the exit of the crop plots and in the reservoir after treatment. The multi-residue method by UPLC-MS/MS was used to determine the concentration of the different active substances in the collected samples. The results obtained indicate that acetamiprid and chlorpyrifos are almost always present regardless of the treatment period. The physico-chemical properties (solubility in water and adsorption to soil particles) explain a difference in behaviour between acetamiprid, present mainly in water, and chlorpyrifos, more concentrated in sediments. Calculations show that 0.005% of the acetamiprid applied in the basin around Gambanè flows to the reservoir, compared to 0.0003% of the chlorpyrifos applied. Depending on the sampling dates, the average runoff quantities for acetamiprid vary from 0.002 to 0.156 g/ha over 96 g/ha and from 0.001 to 0.039 g/ha for chlorpyrifos. The study shows that the transfer by runoff from the fields is relatively fast but is nevertheless influenced by rainfall, the distance of the fields to the reservoir, the slope and the characteristics of the environment. At the concentrations of acetamiprid observed in this receiving environment, the ecotoxicological risk would be negligible (Environmental Risk Index = 4) for aquatic organisms, earthworms and birds. However, concentrations of chlorpyrifos in the environment could be harmful to these organisms (Environmental Risk Index = 272). The aquatic ecosystem in this area is therefore exposed to the harmful effects of these active substances. Key words: acetamiprid; chlorpyrifos; UPLC-MS/MS; cotton
Compact filter systems, which are installed to significantly reduce the load of pollutants from road runoff, are very promising treatments for urban runoff. The objective of this research was to evaluate the effectiveness of activated carbon, activated lignite, zero valent iron, exfoliated graphite, amorphous ferric hydroxide, and activated alumina at removing petrol hydrocarbons from synthetic road runoff. Therefore, the kinetics and the equilibrium adsorption of petrol hydrocarbons onto these adsorbents were investigated using column adsorption experiments at levels ranging from 100 to 42 g L(-1). Of the tested adsorbents, exfoliated graphite is the most effective with a maximum adsorption capacity for petrol hydrocarbons of 3,850 mg g(-1). The experimental equilibrium data are fitted to the Freundlich and Langmuir models.
The distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in different particulate fractions in stormwater: Total, Particulate, Filtrated, Colloidal and Dissolved fractions, were examined and compared to synthetic suspensions of humic acid colloids and iron nano-sized particles. The distribution of low-molecular weight PAHs (LMW PAHs), middle-molecular weight PAHs (MMW PAHs) and high-molecular weight PAHs (HMW PAHs) among the fractions was also evaluated. The results from the synthetic suspensions showed that the highest concentrations of the PAHs were found in the Filtrated fractions and, surprisingly, high loads were found in the Dissolved fractions. The PAHs identified in stormwater in the Particulate fractions and Dissolved fractions follow their hydrophobic properties. In most samples >50% of the HMW PAHs were found in the Particulate fractions, while the LMW and MMW PAHs were found to a higher extent in the Filtrated fractions. The highest concentrations of PAHs were present in the stormwater with the highest total suspended solids (TSS); the relative amount of the HMW PAHs was highest in the Particulate fractions (particles>0.7μm). The highest concentration of PAHs in the Colloidal fraction was found in the sample with occurrence of small nano-sized particles (<10nm). The results show the importance of developing technologies that both can manage particulate matter and effectively remove PAHs present in the Colloidal and Dissolved fractions in stormwater.
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In the present study, a combination of multiple molecular markers was used to improve the identification of pollution sources in sediment samples collected from Huaihe River, China. No significant spatial variation of aliphatic hydrocarbons (normal alkanes, n-alkanes) was observed, whereas, relatively high concentrations of 28 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Σ28PAH) and 20 linear alkylbenzenes (Σ20LAB) in urban sediments and low concentrations of Σ28PAH and Σ20LAB in farm areas were determined. Overall, sediment samples collected from urban areas contained high concentration of Σ20LAB with low concentration of Σ28PAH which mostly originated from pyrolysis, while rural sediments had opposite trends, reflecting the significant input of domestic sewage in urban areas. Residual n-alkanes were mostly from natural sources with relatively low proportion of petrogenic input. For PAHs, the concentrations of diagentic perylene and pyrolytic PAHs from farm areas to urban areas tend to decrease and increase, respectively. Likely origins of pyrolytic PAHs were considered combustion of coal and petroleum related. In the village areas, pyrolytic PAHs were mostly contributed from coal and diesel combustion. Poor domestic wastewater treatment in rural areas caused low ratio of I/E. On the other hand, the results of total toxic benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) equivalent reveal the ecological risk by PAHs was negligible in Huaihe River.
An observatory of urban pollutants was created in Paris in order to assess, at the urban catchment scale, the quality of sanitary sewage and pollutant loads during dry weather periods in the Paris combined sewer. Investigations were carried out for six urban catchments (varying from 42 to 2580 ha) focusing on a wide range of parameters, including: suspended solids (SS), chemical and biochemical oxygen demand (COD and BOD5), total organic carbon (TOC), total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn), and aliphatic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (AHs and PAHs). Despite the marginal intra-site variability of some pollutants, which serves to reflect the impact of point sources, this work attests to the spatial homogeneity, at the physical scales considered, of wastewater quality and pollutant loads within the Paris combined sewer network. These results imply that similar production and transfer processes are occurring within sewers during dry weather periods and strongly suggest that data obtained on one specific catchment could be extrapolated to smaller or larger catchments that display quite similar land use and sewer characteristics.
Experiments performed on the “Marais” catchment, in central Paris, aimed to follow the quality of wet weather flows, from the entry up to the exit of a combined sewer network. Aliphatic (TAH) and polycyclic aromatic (PAH) hydrocarbon concentrations were measured for a significant number of rain events in roof, yard and street runoffs, as well as in wastewater at the catchment outlet. PAHs represented less than 0.05% of the total hydrocarbon contents in the “Marais” catchment whatever the sample location. The concentrations were in the 300?–?800?µg?l and <1?–?200?ng?l ranges for TAHs and PAHs, respectively. Mass balances, at catchment scale, were calculated over nine rain events in order to evaluate the contribution of three different sources: runoff, the wastewater and the sewer deposit erosion to the total wet weather pollution (WWP) load at the catchment outlet. Our results showed that the contributions were 48, 22 and 34% for TAHs and 75, 0 and 25% for PAHs for the sewer deposit erosion, the wastewater and the runoff, respectively. Our result is of interest for WWP management since an important abatement of combined sewer overflow (CSO) pollution might be reached through the reduction of in-sewer pollution stocks during dry weather, increasing the efficiency of wastewater treatment plants during storms.
So far, little attention has been given to the effect of the street cleaning waters (SCW) load on the sewer systems during dry-weather periods. However, the knowledge of this pollution is needed to better understand the contribution of SCW to dry weather flow (DWF) pollution within combined sewers. Therefore, hydrocarbon loads conveyed by SCW were analyzed for two different sites of the Paris agglomeration. Median n-alkane, Unresolved Complex Mixture (UCM) and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations have been estimated at 19, 628 and 1.4 μ g · lfor the Marais catchment (or 4th district), and at 8, 249, and 2.1 μ g · lfor the 13th district, respectively. The observed contamination was mainly attributed to road traffic. Moreover, a comparison between SCW and street runoff showed that street cleaning removes a higher PAH stock than street runoff. In addition, SCW hydrocarbon fluxes evaluated at 5.4, 178 and 0.4 g · dfor n-alkanes, UCM and PAH, respectively, were compared to the hydrocarbon fluxes of the DWF pollutant load at the combined sewer outlet of the Marais catchment. Hydrocarbon loads conveyed by SCW into Paris combined sewers appeared to be a minor source of DWF pollution for n-alkane and UCM, but represented a significant source for PAHs.
An experimental catchment area was set up by the CEREVE (Water, City, Environment and Education Research Centre) in the center of Paris, in order to obtain an accurate description of the urban pollutants within combined sewers. Several investigations were carried out between 1994 and 2005 in order to evaluate the aliphatic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon loads entering combined sewers, as well as the pollutant fluxes conveyed by dry and wet weather flows at catchment outlets. Until now, such results have only been considered independently but neither a comparison between imported and exported hydrocarbon loads nor an assessment of the contributions of different sources (e.g., runoff, dry weather flow and deposit re-suspension within the sewer) to wet weather pollutant loads, have been established. This paper is designed to address these points. The assessment of hydrocarbon loads during dry weather periods underlined a predominant contribution of domestic inputs to the hydrocarbon loads. During wet weather periods, the evaluation of hydrocarbon loads revealed the important role played by in-sewer sediment erosion as a source of wet weather hydrocarbon loads, which contribution ranged from 48 to 55% of the exported loads.
The importance of hydrocarbon contamination of the sewer network has been reported by many authors recently. Most of the studies are focused on the introduction of such pollutants into combined sewers by street and roof stormwater, but few evaluate the contribution of domestic inputs to hydrocarbon pollution. As a consequence, this work—carried out on the framework of the OPUR (Observatory of Urban Pollutants) research program—assesses the resolved aliphatic (AH), unresolved complex mixture (UCM) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations of domestic effluents (DE) and evaluates the role played by such effluents on the hydrocarbon levels of dry weather flow (DWF) in combined sewers. Results show hydrocarbon concentrations in the 200 – 300 μg · l−1, 300 – 1 000 μg · l−1 and 0.9 – 1.4 μg · l−1 ranges for AHs, UCM and the 16 PAHs of the US-EPA, respectively. The assessment of hydrocarbon fluxes conveyed by domestic effluents on the scale of the ‘Le Marais’ experimental urban catchment (42 ha, centre of Paris) reveals the predominant contribution of domestic inputs to the DWF pollution and highlights the unsuspected role of households.
A model to predict the buildup of mainly traffic-generated volatile organic compounds or VOCs (toluene, ethylbenzene, ortho-xylene, meta-xylene, and para-xylene) on urban road surfaces is presented. The model required three traffic parameters, namely average daily traffic (ADT), volume to capacity ratio (V/C), and surface texture depth (STD), and two chemical parameters, namely total suspended solid (TSS) and total organic carbon (TOC), as predictor variables. Principal component analysis and two phase factor analysis were performed to characterize the model calibration parameters. Traffic congestion was found to be the underlying cause of traffic-related VOC buildup on urban roads. The model calibration was optimized using orthogonal experimental design. Partial least squares regression was used for model prediction. It was found that a better optimized orthogonal design could be achieved by including the latent factors of the data matrix into the design. The model performed fairly accurately for three different land uses as well as five different particle size fractions. The relative prediction errors were 10-40% for the different size fractions and 28-40% for the different land uses while the coefficients of variation of the predicted intersite VOC concentrations were in the range of 25-45% for the different size fractions. Considering the sizes of the data matrices, these coefficients of variation were within the acceptable interlaboratory range for analytes at ppb concentration levels.
The wet deposition for particulate matter (PM) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was modelled from the consecutive measurements of atmospheric concentration and wet deposition for particulate matter and PAHs in Higashi-Hiroshima city, Japan. In order to estimate the model in detail, the wet deposition was classified with that from gaseous and PM phase. The gaseous PAHs assumed to be dissolved into raindrops according to Henry's constant, and the PAHs attached on atmospheric PM were assumed to be trapped with PM. The PM was classified with coarse (>7 μm) and fine (0.6-7 μm) PM for the calculation of trap. PM and PAHs depositions estimated with the wet deposition model were compared with measured data. The ratios of the measured to the estimated values of PM and PAHs gave close agreement with measurements (0.41-4.29 (1.35: average) for PM and (0.32-3.83 (1.42)) for PAHs) regardless of precipitation. The depositions of PAHs of liquid and particulate phase were on the other hand significantly different from those from gaseous and PM phases respectively. From those differences, the transfer from particulate to liquid phase was suggested to occur during the precipitation.
During rain events, great quantities of hydrocarbons (aliphatic and aromatic) and heavy metals enter the combined sewer by way of roof and road runoff. The decrease of these inputs, necessary to the combined sewer overflow reduction, requires knowledge of pollutant nature and origin. This work, focused on lift station sediments, aims to characterised the contents and fingerprints of pollutants associated to road runoff. Hydrocarbon contamination levels, calculated at 80 and 24 µg.g-1 dw for aliphatic and aromatic compounds, are of the same order of magnitude than those reported in the literature. In the same way, heavy metal contamination levels are in a good agreement with previous studies. Nevertheless, a decrease of Pb contents, induced by the recent restriction of the Pb traffic emission, and an increase of Cu contents, probably linked to the occurrence of intensive brake lining abrasion, were noticed. Moreover, hydrocarbon fingerprints underline the variability of the hydrocarbon origin. Indeed, aliphatic distributions reflect the combination of biologic (vegetal) and petrogenic (lubricating oils, gasoline, etc.) inputs, while aromatic distributions indicate a major pyrolytic origin with traces of petrogenic contaminations. Lors d’évènements pluvieux, de grandes quantités d’hydrocarbures (aliphatiques et aromatiques) et métaux lourds pénètrent dans le réseau d’assainissement suivant deux voies d’introduction principales : les ruissellements de toitures et de chaussées. La diminution de ces entrées, nécessaire à la réduction des rejets urbains de temps de pluie, suppose que l’on dispose de données précises sur la nature et l’origine des polluants. Ce travail, focalisé sur les sédiments de stations de relevage, a pour objectif de caractériser quantitativement (teneurs) et qualitativement (distributions) la pollution associée aux ruissellements de chaussées. Les niveaux de pollution en hydrocarbures aliphatiques et aromatiques, respectivement estimés à 80 et 24 µg.g-1 ms, sont comparables à ceux rapportés par la littérature. De la même manière, les niveaux de pollution en métaux sont du même ordre de grandeur que ceux mesurés dans les études antérieures. Cependant, une diminution des teneurs en Pb, conséquence positive de la récente limitation des émissions automobiles, et une augmentation des teneurs en Cu, probablement liée à l’utilisation intensive des systèmes de freinage sur les axes routiers considérés, ont été notées. L’étude qualitative de la pollution en hydrocarbures associée aux sédiments de stations de relevage a, quant à elle, souligné l’existence de contaminations d’origines diverses. La pollution en composés aliphatiques provient, en effet, de la combinaison d’apports biologiques (organes végétaux) et pétroliers (huiles lubrifiantes, carburants, etc.) alors que la pollution en composés aromatiques est majoritairement pyrolytique (particules d’échappement) avec des traces de contaminations pétrolières
0,014 et 0,014 % et une diminution du Cu de 0,024 % par an. En zone urbaine, les retombées atmosphériques ont été comparées aux ruissellements de toitures et de chaussées. Ainsi, l'apport atmosphérique est la voie prépondérante d'introduction de métaux et d'hydrocarbures, à l'exception des éléments Cu, Pb, Ti et Zn émis majoritairement par les toitures. Cependant, les apports atmosphériques sont inférieurs, de l'ordre de 1,5 à 27 fois suivant les éléments, aux apports occasionnés par le lavage de la voirie. L'étude des sources atmosphériques d'aérosols a permis l'obtention d'outils permettant la caractérisation des principales sources de rejets atmosphériques de métaux. Ainsi, les différents types d'aérosols considérés ont pu être clairement distingués suivant différents éléments et rapports d'éléments. L'utilisation des outils obtenus sur les données de retombées atmosphériques ne semble cependant pas permettre une distinction des différents apports anthropiques et terrigènes du fait des phénomènes de mélange atmosphériques.
This thesis was carried out on the framework of the programme OPUR (Observatory of Urban Pollutants). The main objectives were to improve the current knowledge on generation and transfer mechanisms of aliphatic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on different spatial scales within the Parisian combined sewer. The first section is focused on the pollutant entry pathways in the combined sewer during dry and wet weather periods. The second one aimed to better evaluate the spatial evolution of the hydrocarbon pollution within different urban catchments, which area cover from 42 to 2 581 ha. Results revealed for the considered catchments, that the characteristic and transfer of hydrocarbons do not evolve in relation to the spatial scale.
This report is the first in a series of reports focussing on the water quality impacts of urbanisation. The primary objectives of this report has been to critically review relevant published research, to identify important areas where there is a current lack of in-depth knowledge and to define future research directions.
It is common knowledge that urbanisation can lead to significant water quantity and quality impacts. Past research into quantity impacts have resulted in an in-depth understanding of these issues and acceptable reliability in commonly available predictive approaches. However this is not the case for water quality impacts. The underlying processes and concepts relating to urban water quality are well known in a qualitative sense. However their quantification has proved to be extremely difficult. This is a major failure in most research studies. As a result, attempts to correlate land use to pollutant loadings have been inconclusive.
A limitation in current urban water quality research is that the approaches adopted are strongly based in water quantity research undertaken in the past. The extension of these concepts and processes is not satisfactory due to the strong reliance on physical factors only and the limited recognition of chemical processes. Chemical processes exert a strong influence on urban stormwater quality characteristics. It is this neglect which can be primarily attributed to the often contradictory results reported in research studies and the strongly location specific nature of study outcomes. As such, this has led to significant constraints in defining the process kinetics of pollutant generation, transmission and dispersion such as pollutant build-up and wash-off.
Consequently, the management of water quality impacts in urban areas has proven to be a difficult task. The effectiveness of commonly adopted management and structural measures is open to question. The contradictory research findings in relation to these measures clearly point to the significant role played by location specific factors influencing water quality rather than purely land use.
A holistic approach is needed to safeguard the quality of receiving waters in urban areas. The current approach to urban water quality management is piecemeal and the benefits are only be marginal. It provides a false sense of achievement and even detracts attention from the more difficult challenges to be met to safeguard urban water quality.
It is important to ensure the transferability of research outcomes for wider benefit and the relationships derived should facilitate this transfer. Future research directions have been proposed taking the above noted concerns into consideration.
A comprehensive water quality monitoring program was conducted in the Yeongsan (YS) River, Korea from 2005 to present to investigate wet and dry weather pollutant discharge in an attempt to establish point and non-point pollution management strategies. As part of this monitoring program, 11 heavy metal species were measured during dry and wet weather conditions in the YS River, where Gwangju City (GJ), a subcatchment of the YS River, was further monitored to clarify the responsibility of different metal species discharged into the mainstream. Monthly grab water samples showed that greater amounts of metals along the YS River were discharged during the wet summer months due largely to storm runoff. In addition, further monitoring results revealed that GJ, a highly urbanized area, was a significant contributor of the heavy metals being discharged into the YS River during both wet and dry weather. The most abundant metal species discharged from GJ were manganese, aluminum and iron with different contributions of wet and dry weather flows to the total discharge load. Wet weather flow was a significant contributor to the annual dissolved metal loads, accounting for 44-93% of the annual load depending on the metal species, with the exception of chromium and cadmium (9% and 27%, respectively). Mostly, metal loads during wet weather were shown to be proportional to the rainfall depth and antecedent dry period. A substantial fraction of metals were also associated with solids, suggesting that sedimentation might be an appropriate management practice for reducing the metal load generated in GJ. Overall, although dissolved metal concentrations in YS River were at an acceptable level for aquatic community protection, continual metal discharge throughout the year was considered to be a potential problem in the long-term due to gradual water quality degradation as well as continuous metal accumulation in the system.
The knowledge of the pollution stored in combined sewers is of prime importance in terms of management of wet weather flow pollution since sewer deposits play a significant role as source of pollution in combined sewer overflows. This work, which focused on the hydrocarbon (aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons) and metallic (Fe, Zn, Pb, Cu and Cd) pollution fixed to the different kinds of sewer deposits (gross bed sediment [GBS], organic layer [OL] and biofilm), was performed in order to provide a complete overview of the contaminant storage in the 'Le Marais' combined sewer (Central Paris, France). Firstly, our results have shown that, for all kinds of pollutants, a major part was stored in the GBS (87 to 98%), a lesser part in the OL (2 to 13%) and an insignificant part in the biofilm (<1%). These results demonstrated that the potential contribution of biofilm to wet weather pollution was negligible compared to the OL one. Secondly, the investigation of hydrocarbon fingerprints in each deposit has provided relevant information about contamination origins: (1) aliphatic hydrocarbon distributions were indicative of petroleum input in the GBS and reflected a mixture of biogenic and petroleum inputs in the OL and biofilm, (2) aromatic hydrocarbon distributions suggested an important pyrolytic contamination in all the deposits. Finally, the study of pollutant fingerprints in the different deposits and in the suspended solids going through the collector has shown that: (1) the suspended solids were the major component of OL and biofilm while urban runoff seemed to be the main transport mechanism introducing pollutants in the GBS and (2) the residence times in sewer of OL and biofilm were quite short compared to those for GBS.
This work aims to characterise the pollutant loads fixed to the Lift Station (LS) sediments. Firstly, levels of n-alkanes, PAH and heavy metals (Fe, Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd) of LS sediments were assessed, and were found of the same order of magnitude as those reported for street runoff. In addition, investigations on LS sediment reveal that n-alkane distributions reflect the combination of biologic and petrogenic inputs, while PAH distributions indicate a major pyrolytic origin with traces of petrogenic contaminations. The metallic fingerprints also attest to the important contribution of road traffic emissions. Secondly, a comparison between LS sediment and the Gross Bed Sediment (GBS) pollutant contamination was established in order to optimize the in-sewer deposits management. For hydrocarbons, a similar contamination between both sediments is found. For the heavy metals, this comparison indicates a similar Fe and Zn content, while Pb, Cu and Cd contents differ. Indeed, LS sediment shows a higher Cu content, linked to the occurrence of intensive brake lining abrasion, compared with GBS, which reflects a higher Pb and Cd content, owing to the contribution of roof runoff. This result reveals the impact of specific inputs such as road traffic or roof runoff on the in-sewer sediments contamination, and provides a complete overview of the LS sediment contamination. This database could be used by the municipality to optimize their contaminated in-sewer sediment management.
This paper reports an initial study regarding our quantitative understanding of the characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) contamination and loading estimation from road runoff in Beijing (China). The concentrations of 16 PAHs were measured in road runoff and rainwater in a composite commercial and residential catchment of Beijing in 2006. In road runoff samples, geometric mean concentrations of Sigma16 PAHs (the sum of 16 PAH concentrations) in the dissolved and particle phases were 548.2 and 3,872.2 ng/L, respectively, and in rainwater samples, the concentrations in the dissolved and particle phases were 172.9 and 274.6 ng/L, respectively. An analysis on spatial variation among the sampling sites showed that PAH concentrations at the branch road (with low traffic volume) were higher than those at the trunk road (with high traffic volume) and that PAH contamination at the bicycle lane was comparable to that at the vehicle lane. Dimensionless cumulative analyses indicated that first flush effect did not occur in all cases, but rather depended on storm event characteristics. According to the annual unit loading rate and the planned road area, the relative magnitude of PAH loading in road runoff was in the following order: Vehicle lane of trunk road > branch road > bicycle lane of trunk road.
A project was embarked on to determine the relationship of hydrocarbon load to both total rainfall and land, and to measure the concentration of hydrocarbons and SS in runoff as a function of time during a storm. With this data, it would be possible to calculate the loading of hydrocarbons in runoff into Narragansett Bay and to provide relationships that could be useful in predictive models for application to other locations. This paper presents data from the results of studies at one land use area, a commercial shopping mall.
A study for assessing the sources and fate of pollutants during their transport within urban catchment was camed out in the central Paris district, “Le Marais”. 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were assessed, according to the EPA list, in different types of runoff from a town centre and wet weather waste waters at the outlet of the catchment. PAHs were found predominantly in particulate phase whatever the sample. The median levels found in the different runoffs ranged from below the detection limit (i.e. 1 ng.L) to 215 ng.L. For the combined sewer outlet, it was 204 ng.L. Phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene and pyrene were the most observed compounds. The PAH runoff contents were compared to the combined sewer outlet during wet weather and the total atmospheric fallout. The results show the major role of the atmosphere as a pollution vector as well as the high contribution of the sewer network.
The objectives of this paper are (i) to present reliable methods of quantification of both hydrocarbons and metals in dissolved and particulate urban runoff samples as well as atmospheric deposits, (ii) to emphasise on the validation procedure of these methods by using replicates, available certified samples or standard mixtures. NIST 1648 (urban particulate matter), BCR 144 R and 146 R (trace elements in sewage sludge from domestic and industrial origin, respectively), NIST 1643c (trace elements in water), SPS-WW1 and SPS-SW2 (waste and surface waters, respectively), were used with success for validating metal extraction and analysis procedures. In the absence of certified urban runoff sample for particulate or dissolved aliphatic hydrocarbons, NIST SRM 1941a was used as noncertified particulate sample (marine sediment certified only for aromatic hydrocarbons) and Florida TPH mix (NSI Environmental Solutions) as a mixture of 17 dissolved aliphatic hydrocarbons from C10 to C40. Such validation procedures enable a better discrimination between sample heterogeneity and determination precision.
The chemical composition of hydrocarbon mixtures found in sediments reflects the relative contributions of different natural and manmade sources. In the vicinity of highly populated and industrialized areas, anthropogenic inputs are prominent while in remote areas most hydrocarbons have mainly a natural origin. This study demonstrates that the evaluation of n-alkane and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon distribution indexes in the Rio de La Plata estuary sediments helped elucidate the origins of complex hydrocarbon mixtures.
Ten rainwater and snow samples were collected from the Los Angeles area and its vicinity (semirural and rural areas) in S California. The samples were studied for various types of solvent-extractable organic compounds, including n-alkanes, UCM hydrocarbons, PAHs, FAs, benzoic acids and phenols. (See Table 1 for definition of acronyms.)In rural (mountain) snow samples, the major identifiable species are odd-carbon-numbered n-alkanesin the C17–C35 range and even-carbon-numbered FAs in the C12–C30 range, which are both of biogenic origin. On the other hand, Los Angeles urban rain samples contain abundant phenols, benzoic acids and UCM, which are considered to originate from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels mostly in automobile, as well as biogenic FAs. The results indicate that in urban areas, anthropogenic sources are the most important factor controlling the organic chemistry of rainwater, whereas biogenic sources are a minor contributor.Several indices are discussed for evaluating the anthropogenic/biogenic contribution to organic matter in wet deposition. The CPI of n-alkanes, UCM/n-alkanes ratio, phenols/C12–C30 FA ratio, benzoic acids/C12–C30 FA ratio, UCM/C12–C30FA ratio and PAH/C12–C30 FA ratio change drastically from rural to urban areas, indicating that they are useful indicators.
The top and bottom of two sediment cores collected from an urban receiving basin in NW London, and stormwater samples from the attendant catchment, have been analysed for their hydrocarbon content. In surface sediments, basal sediments and stormwater, total aliphatic hydrocarbon levels are 445-690 μg g⁻¹ dry wt., 43-224 μg g⁻¹ and 0.36-1.10 mg l⁻¹, respectively; and total levels of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are 780-1 100 μg g⁻¹, 310-640 μg g¹ and 5.83-18.21 mg l⁻¹, respectively. Biodegradation of aliphatics is assessed by phytane:n-C18 and pristane: n-C17 ratios. Hydrocarbon sources are determined from phytane: pristane ratios, odd: even carbon chain length ratios, the presence of an unresolved complex mixture, and by comparison of the amount of methyl-substituted PAH s with that of the parent compounds. Comparison of total levels between surface and basal sediments shows a 1 to 3 fold increase in total PAHs and a 3 to 10 fold increase in aliphatic hydrocarbons over a 120 year period.
Roof runoff water was sampled from an experimental roof system and from house roofs in the city of Bayreuth, Germany. Samples were analysed for organic micropollutants, heavy metals and sum parameters. The pollution level and the shape of the runoff profiles are dependent on the individual properties of the precipitation event and the roof, but patterns with high concentrations at the beginning of the event and a subsequent decrease (first flush effect) are very typical. For dissolved substances, the profile can often be well described by a negative exponential function. Metal surfaces on the roofs cause extreme runoff pollution with heavy metals (Cu, Zn) that constitutes an environmental hazard. It is concluded that there is a need for the development of flexible drainage strategies for surface runoff and that metal surfaces should be avoided on roofs.
Runoff was collected from 4 roofs, 3 courtyards and 6 streets on an experimental catchment in central Paris, and analysed for SS, VSS, COD, BOD5, hydrocarbons, heavy metals both as regards dissolved and particle fractions. Whereas street runoff showed important SS, COD and hydrocarbon loads, roof runoff was noticeable for its high concentration of heavy metals. These concentrations in comparison with water quality standards enhance the importance of runoff pollution. The use of sample settling for runoff treatment is discussed on the basis of data concerning the distribution between dissolved and particle bound pollution loads, along with settling velocity measurements. Runoff particles were found to be highly contaminated with heavy metals and hydrocarbons, which raised the problem of sludge disposal.
An experimental urban catchment has been created in the centre of Paris, in order to obtain a description of the pollution of urban wet weather flows at different levels of the combined sewer system, and to estimate the contribution of runoff, waste water and sewer sediments to this pollution. Twenty-two rainfall events were studied from May to October 1996. Dry weather flow was monitored for one week. Roof, street and yard runoff, total flow at the catchment outlet and waste water were analysed for SS, VSS, COD and BOD5, on both total and dissolved fraction. Results show an evolution in the characteristics of wet weather flow from up to downstream: concentrations increase from the catchment entry to the outlet, as well as the proportion of particle-bound pollutants and the part of organic matter. A first evaluation of the different sources of pollution establishes that a major part of wet weather flow pollution originates from inside the combined sewer, probably through erosion of sewer sediments.
The literature on petroleum hydrocarbon discharges from urban runoff and combined sewer overflows was reviewed with emphasis on: concentrations and mass discharge rates, factors which control these rates, chemistry of the hydrocarbons, sources and abatement of the petroleum products in urban runoff. Hydrocarbon concentrations in urban runoff were shown to be a function of land use, storm hydrography and form of precipitation. Relationships of hydrocarbon concentrations to analytical methodology, antecedent conditions and traffic volume are unclear. In all the studies, the hydrocarbons in urban runoff were largely associated with particulates. The chemical nature of the hydrocarbons in runoff were shown to be a function of storm history and/or land use. Although a number of source materials for the hydrocarbons in runoff have been suggested, drips of crankcase oil on pavement surfaces appear to be the dominant source at most land uses. Abatement procedures demonstrated to be effective include proper maintenance of automobiles, use of oil-water separators for industrial runoff, use of specially designed drainage systems which include subsurface disposal, overland flow landscaping, retention basins and porous pavement. Combined sewer overflow data on hydrocarbons are very rare and discharge rates appear to be site specific. A modelling approach to estimate potential loadings via combined sewer overflows was discussed. Hydrocarbon pollution budgets to various receiving waters were compared. Although each budget was site specific, it appears that the total hydrocarbon budget relates to the population of the watershed. Chronic inputs of petroleum to U.S. aquatic environments is estimated at 470 × 103 tons per year.
In order to investigate the concentration levels and chemodynamic behaviour of organic micropollutants and heavy metals in snowmelt runoff from urban sealed surfaces, meltwater was sampled from one street and four different roof catchments. Apart from peak concentrations of suspended solids during short intense street runoff from rain, concentrations of suspended solids in snowmelt runoff are two to fivefold higher than in rain runoff. However, the specific metal concentrations in suspended solids of snowmelt (except Zn) are lower than in suspended solids of rainwater runoff. This partly compensates the higher concentration of suspended solids. There are no distinct differences in concentrations of heavy metals between rain and meltwater runoff with the exception of dissolved Cd; its concentrations are increased when high concentrations of macro ions are present. We explain high concentrations of PAH with a molecular weight of 202 or less in snowmelt with longer equilibration times available during melting than during rain runoff. An enhancement of solubility by DOC seems to be likely. The physical and chemical properties of various roof surfaces greatly influence the temporal variation of PAH concentrations during snowmelt runoff.
Roof runoff water was sampled from an experimental roof system and from house roofs in the city of Bayreuth, Germany. Samples were analysed for organic micropollutants, heavy metals and sum parameters. The pollution level and the shape of the runoff profiles are dependent on the individual properties of the precipitation event and the roof, but patterns with high concentrations at the beginning of the event and a subsequent decrease (first flush effect) are very typical. For dissolved substances, the profile can often be well described by a negative exponential function. Metal surfaces on the roofs cause extreme runoff pollution with heavy metals (Cu, Zn) that constitutes an environmental hazard. It is concluded that there is a need for the development of flexible drainage strategies for surface runoff and that metal surfaces should be avoided on roofs.
Runoff was collected from 4 roofs, 3 courtyards and 6 streets on an experimental catchment in central Paris, and analysed for SS, VSS, COD, BOD5, hydrocarbons, heavy metals both as regards dissolved and particle fractions. Whereas street runoff showed important SS, COD and hydrocarbon loads, roof runoff was noticeable for its high concentration of heavy metals. These concentrations in comparison with water quality standards enhance the importance of runoff pollution. The use of sample settling for runoff treatment is discussed on the basis of data concerning the distribution between dissolved and particle bound pollution loads, along with settling velocity measurements. Runoff particles were found to be highly contaminated with heavy metals and hydrocarbons, which raised the problem of sludge disposal.
ALTHOUGH petroleum is an important energy resource, there is still much to learn about its composition that would be of practical importance in exploration, refining and the identification of materials resulting from oil spills. Chromatography does not resolve (and thus identify) a substantial proportion of even the hydrocarbons in petroleum. These components are often referred to as the unresolved complex mixture (UCM), or 'hump', which is especially pronounced for biodegraded petroleum and certain refined fractions such as lubricating oils14. We now describe the use of several methods in parallel to analyse the hydrocarbon hump from crudes, lubricating oils and oil-spill samples. Comparison of our results with those for synthesized alkanes allows us to propose model structures for some of the hydrocarbon components of the hump, and from in vitro studies we conclude that the resistance of many of these compounds to microbial degradation arises partly from their structure.
An experimental urban catchment has been created in the centre of Paris, in order to obtain a description of the pollution of urban wet weather flows at different levels of the combined sewer system, and to estimate the contribution of runoff, waste water and sewer sediments to this pollution. Twenty-two rainfall events were studied from May to October 1996. Dry weather flow was monitored for one week. Roof, street and yard runoff, total flow at the catchment outlet and waste water were analysed for SS, VSS, COD and BODS, on both total and dissolved fraction. Results show an evolution in the characteristics of wet weather flow from up to downstream: concentrations increase from the catchment entry to the outlet, as well as the proportion of particle-bound pollutants and the part of organic matter. A first evaluation of the different sources of pollution establishes that a major part of wet weather flow pollution originates from inside the combined sewer, probably through erosion of sewer sediments.
The top and bottom of two sediment cores collected from an urban receiving basin in NW London, and stormwater samples from the attendant catchment, have been analysed for their hydrocarbon content.
In surface sediments, basal sediments and stormwater, total aliphatic hydrocarbon levels are 445–690 µg g−1 dry wt., 43–224 µg g−1 and 0.36–1.10 mg l−1, respectively; and total levels of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are 780–1 100 µg g−1, 310–640 µg g1 and 5.83–18.21 mg l−1, respectively.
Biodegradation of aliphatics is assessed by phytane:n-C18 and pristane: n-C17 ratios. Hydrocarbon sources are determined from phytane: pristane ratios, odd: even carbon chain length ratios, the presence of an unresolved complex mixture, and by comparison of the amount of methyl-substituted PAH s with that of the parent compounds.
Comparison of total levels between surface and basal sediments shows a 1 to 3 fold increase in total PAHs and a 3 to 10 fold increase in aliphatic hydrocarbons over a 120 year period.
Samples of surficial bottom sediments collected from six main zones along the Alexandria coast (Egypt) have been analyzed and characterized in terms of their contents of biogenic and anthropogenic hydrocarbon biomarkers. The distributions, structures, and applicability of these compounds in determining sample sources are discussed using the biomarker multi-tracer approach. By means of multivariate statistical analyses (Q-mode cluster analysis, extended Q-mode factor analysis, and linear programming technique), the hydrocarbon tracers were grouped according to their probable input sources and the sampling stations according to the relative importance of each source contribution.Homologous long chain n-alkanes (C15C38), CPI, UCM, and biomarkers such as pristane, phytane, tricyclic (C19C29) and tetracyclic (C24, C28 and C29) terpanes, 17α(H),21β(H)-hopanes (C27C35), 5α(H),14β(H),17β(H)-steranes (C27C29) with minor amounts of 5α(H),14α(H),17α(H)-steranes and 13α(H),17β(H)-diasteranes were found to be the most suitable indicators to differentiate between sewage/industrial pollution and natural background sources. Several ratios of the terrestrial and anthropogenic biomarkers were calculated for every station in each zone. These ratios, the aliphatic hydrocarbon concentrations (relative to TOC), and the statistical findings from the multivariate techniques indicate strong signals of petroleum/industrial and biogenic/terrestrial aliphatic hydrocarbons in the Alexandria coastal region.
Hydrocarbon results from gas chromatography of 60 recent sediment and 10 benthic algae samples delineate two distinct shelf environments in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico.Sediments off Florida (shell hashes and sands) have moderate amounts of lipids/total sediment (average 113ppm ± 80%) but low hydrocarbon levels (average 3.06 ppm ± 41%). Aliphatic hydrocarbons are dominated by a series of branched or cyclic, unsaturated C25 isomers. The major n-alkane is n-C17. The n-alkane and isoprenoid patterns are consistent with a marine hydrocarbon source.Sediments closer to the Mississippi River (silts and clays) contain large amounts of lipids (average 232 ppm ± 53%) and hydrocarbons (average 11.7 ppm ± 55%) to total sediment. Aliphatic hydrocarbons are mainly odd carbon number high molecular weight n-alkanes, indicating a terrigenous hydrocarbon source. Isoprenoids are present in greater abundance than in sediments off Florida (n-C17/ pristane and n-C18/phytane ratios ~2to 3). Relatively large amounts of n-C16, together with an even distribution of n-alkanes in the range C14–C20 and a substantial unresolved envelope all point to a fossil fuel input to the Mississippi samples.Samples off the Alabama coast show intermediate characteristics.
An unresolved complex mixture (UCM) of hydrocarbons isolated from a commercially available lubricating oil, and a synthetic mixture of C25 hydrocarbons were subjected to biodegration by an aerobic bacterium, Pseudomonas fluorescens, for 0–25 days. The rate and extent of biodegration was influenced by molecular structure. Straight chain and monomethyl-alkanes were rapidly degraded in the first 10 days in the approximate order n-C25>2-methyl->9-methyl-tetracosane. The remaining alkanes were degraded more slowly, initially at a rate comparable to the UCM (ca 1% day− up to day 14) but thereafter more quickly (ca 3% day−). The UCM was degraded as a whole, i.e. no reduction in the proportion of resolved vs unresolved alkanes was observed.
Pollution of natural waters from urban areas can be significant. Toxic substances, such as heavy metals or organic priority pollutants, are of particular interest in this respect. Preliminary investigations at four different stations within the Karlsruhe drainage area indicated that these substances may appear at high concentration levels. The Federal Ministry for Research and Technology is financing a project for the development of sampling techniques and strategies in order to investigate the mechanisms of accumulation and discharge of such pollutants from urban areas draining into the public sewer system and their possible contribution to natural waters. Special sampling devices had to be developed for the street inlet structure.
A hydrocarbon characterization analysis has been applied to extractable organic matter from Madrid runoff. The effects of traffic densities as well as seasonal and meteorological influences have been considered. The main contribution is the exhausts from vehicles, which are distinguished by the presence of petroleum residues in the form of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with carcinogenic potency have been also determined from incomplete combustion products in automobile exhausts. Natural hydrocarbons derived from higher vascular plants are present in residential and landscaped areas in high levels.
Water carried particulate matter (seston) collected in sediment traps has been used for fingerprinting petrogenic hydrocarbons (PHC) along an urban influenced transect in the Stockholm archipelago. Gas-chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) have been used for identification and quantification of n-alkanes, the isoprenoids pristane and phytane, pentacyclic triterpanes, the unresolved complex mixture (UCM) and total hydrocarbon content (THC). Preserved seston has been compared with anoxic seston and anoxic bottom surface sediments to establish the effects of degradation processes, and with spring bloom plankton as a reference of biological material. The results show that samples of seston, collected and preserved in sediment traps, are very suitable for carrying out fingerprint analyses of petrogenic hydrocarbons. A gradient of increasing PHC downflux towards the urban area was found and petrogenic contamination of the waters was detected along the whole transect.
Solids in urban wet weather discharges: characteristics and treatability (in French: Solides des rejets pluviaux urbains. Caractérisation et traitabilité)
- G Chebbo
Chebbo G. Solids in urban wet weather discharges: characteristics and treatability (in French: Solides des rejets pluviaux urbains. Caract! erisation et traitabilit! e), Ph.D. thesis, Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chauss! ees, Paris, France, 410pp.+appendices, 1992.
Sources of pollution of stormwater runoff from urban areas. Novatech 92 Analysis and Modelisation
- C Xanthopoulos
- H H Hahn
Xanthopoulos C, Hahn HH. Sources of pollution of stormwater runoff from urban areas. Novatech 92 Analysis and Modelisation, 1992. p. 43–53.
Anthropogenic pollutants wash-off from street surfaces
- C Xanthopoulos
- H H Hahn
Xanthopoulos C, Hahn HH. Anthropogenic pollutants wash-off from street surfaces. Proceedings of Sixth International Conference on Urban Storm Drainage, Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada, vol. 1, 1993. p. 417–22.
Hydrocarbons in urban runoff: their contribution to waste waters [11] F . orster J. Patterns of roof runoff contamination and their potential implications on practice and regulation of treatment and local infiltration
- Mt Bomboi
- A Hernandez
Bomboi MT, Hernandez A. Hydrocarbons in urban
runoff: their contribution to waste waters. Water Res
1991;25(5):557–65.
[11] F.
orster J. Patterns of roof runoff contamination and their
potential implications on practice and regulation of
treatment and local infiltration. Water Sci Technol
1996;33(6):39–48.
Hydrocarbons in urban runoff
- Bomboi
Biodegradation studies of unresolved complex mixtures of hydrocarbons
- Gough
Hydrocarbons in 60 northeast Gulf of Mexico shelf sediments
- Gearing