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Accelerated glacial recession and downwasting in Pacific North America is exposing land surfaces and fea- tures buried by glacial advances that, in many locations, predate the recent Little Ice Age (LIA). Dendrochronologic analyses of increment core samples from living trees (Abies lasiocarpa, Tsuga mertensiana) and samples of subfossil wood collec...
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Context 1
... glacier is characterized by prominent lateral mo- raines that reach up to 150 m in height above the valley floor (Fig. 7). The exposed proximal slope of the north-facing lat- eral moraine is composed of multiple till horizons separated by contiguous layers of detrital boles and wood fragments (Fig. ...
Context 2
... investigations at Surprise glacier were restricted to surveys of the prominent north-facing lat- eral moraine (Fig. 7). The lateral moraine is composed of massive units of till of variable character but dominated by poorly sorted sands and angular boulders up to 8 m in diam- eter. Six distinct woody horizons separated by thick till units were identified. The wood-dominated horizons were later- ally contiguous and emphasized by an ochre-coloured stain ...
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Citations
... Glaciers may kill trees by expanding into forests, shearing tree trunks, burying trees beneath glacial sediment, or partially burying them in outwash sediments ( Figure 5) (Barclay et al., 2009;Jackson et al., 2008;Koehler and Smith, 2011). Tree stumps may be protected in downstream low-pressure zones and downstream of bedrock protrusions . ...
Combining glacial geomorphology and understanding the glacial process with geochronological tools is a powerful method for understanding past ice-mass response to climate change. These data are critical if we are to comprehend ice mass response to external drivers of change and better predict future change. This article covers key concepts relating to the dating of glacial landforms, including absolute and relative dating techniques, direct and indirect dating, precision and accuracy, minimum and maximum ages, and quality assurance protocols. The article then covers the dating of glacial landforms using archival methods (documents, paintings, topographic maps, aerial photographs, satellite images), relative stratigraphies (morphostratigraphy, Schmidt hammer dating, amino acid racemization), incremental methods that mark the passage of time (lichenometry, dendroglaciology, varve records), and age-equivalent stratigraphic markers (tephrochronology, palaeomagnetism, biostratigraphy). When used together with radiometric techniques, these methods allow glacier response to climate change to be characterized across the Quaternary, with resolutions from annual to thousands of years, and timespans applicable over the last few years, decades, centuries, millennia and millions of years. All dating strategies must take place within a geomorphological and sedimentological framework that seeks to comprehend glacier processes, depositional pathways and post-depositional processes, and dating techniques must be used with knowledge of their key assumptions, best-practice guidelines and limitations.
... CE 1850 (Grove, 2001). More similar to the GOA record are those from the western interior region of Canada and from the Pacific Northwest, where most glaciers reached their LIA maxima in the early 18th century, and several others reached their LIA maxima in the mid-19th century (Burbank, 1981;Heikkinen, 1984;Luckman, 1993;Luckman, 2000;Larocque and Smith, 2003;Lewis and Smith, 2004;Allen and Smith, 2007;Jackson et al., 2008;Menounos et al., 2009;Koch et al., 2011;Koehler and Smith, 2011;. These differing geographic patterns suggest that the global causes of the LIA were strongly modified by idiosyncrasies involving glaciological responses to regional climate processes. ...
The Little Ice Age (LIA), ca. CE 1250–1850, was a cold period of global extent, with the nature and timing of reduced temperatures varying by region. The Gulf of Alaska (GOA) is a key location to study the climatic drivers of glacier fluctuations during the LIA because dendrochronological techniques can provide precise ages of ice advances and retreats. Here, we use dendrochronology to date the most recent advance of La Perouse Glacier in the Fairweather Range of Southeast Alaska. After maintaining a relatively contracted state since at least CE 1200, La Perouse advanced to its maximum LIA position between CE 1850 and 1895. Like many other glaciers bordering the GOA, the La Perouse Glacier reached this maximum position relatively late in the LIA compared with glaciers in other regions. This is curious because reconstructions of paleoclimate in the GOA region indicate the 19th century was not the coldest period of the LIA. Using newly available paleoclimate data, we hypothesize that a combination of moderately cool summers accompanying the Dalton Solar Minimum and exceptionally snowy winters associated with a strengthened Aleutian Low could have caused these relatively late LIA advances. Such a scenario implies that winter climate processes, which are heavily influenced by ocean-atmospheric variability in the North Pacific region, have modulated these coastal glaciers’ sensitivity to shifts in summer temperatures.
... Evidence for glacier advances during the first millennium CE is widespread in the western Cordillera of North America outside of Alaska (Luckman, 2000;Reyes and Clague, 2004;Allen and Smith, 2007;Koch et al., 2007a;Jackson et al., 2008;Menounos et al., 2009;Clague et al., 2010;Samolczyk et al., 2010;Bowerman and Clark, 2011;Johnson and Smith, 2012;Maurer et al., 2012;Coulthard et al., 2012;Munroe et al., 2012;Osborn et al., 2012;Craig and Smith, 2013;Hoffman and Smith, 2013;Mood and Smith, 2015), but glacier extent generally appears to have been smaller than during advances of the past millennium. Some glaciers were likely smaller before CE 500 than in the late 20th century (Allen and Smith, 2007;Clague et al., 2010), even though other glaciers seem to have advanced during that same period (Jackson et al., 2008;Samolczyk et al., 2010;Maurer et al., 2012;Osborn et al., 2012;Hoffman and Smith, 2013). ...
... Evidence for glacier advances during the first millennium CE is widespread in the western Cordillera of North America outside of Alaska (Luckman, 2000;Reyes and Clague, 2004;Allen and Smith, 2007;Koch et al., 2007a;Jackson et al., 2008;Menounos et al., 2009;Clague et al., 2010;Samolczyk et al., 2010;Bowerman and Clark, 2011;Johnson and Smith, 2012;Maurer et al., 2012;Coulthard et al., 2012;Munroe et al., 2012;Osborn et al., 2012;Craig and Smith, 2013;Hoffman and Smith, 2013;Mood and Smith, 2015), but glacier extent generally appears to have been smaller than during advances of the past millennium. Some glaciers were likely smaller before CE 500 than in the late 20th century (Allen and Smith, 2007;Clague et al., 2010), even though other glaciers seem to have advanced during that same period (Jackson et al., 2008;Samolczyk et al., 2010;Maurer et al., 2012;Osborn et al., 2012;Hoffman and Smith, 2013). Many locations had advances between CE 400e600, before glaciers retreated to some degree. ...
... Some moraines in western Canada were possibly deposited during this advance (Koch et al., 2007b;Osborn et al., 2007;Koehler and Smith, 2011). Major moraine-building phases in the mountains of western North America date to CE 1690e1730, 1830e1850, 1860e1890, and 1910e1930 (Luckman, 2000;Luckman and Villalba, 2001;Osborn et al., 2001;Allen and Smith, 2007;Koch et al., 2007b;Osborn et al., 2007Osborn et al., , 2012Jackson et al., 2008;Clague et al., 2010;Bowerman and Clark, 2011;Koehler and Smith, 2011;Maurer et al., 2012;Munroe et al., 2012;Coulthard et al., 2012;Mood and Smith, 2015). ...
A global compilation of glacier advances and retreats for the past two millennia grouped by 17 regions (excluding Antarctica) highlights the nature of glacier fluctuations during the late Holocene. The dataset includes 275 time series of glacier fluctuations based on historical, tree ring, lake sediment, radiocarbon and terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide data. The most detailed and reliable series for individual glaciers and regional compilations are compared with summer temperature and, when available, winter precipitation reconstructions, the most important parameters for glacier mass balance. In many cases major glacier advances correlate with multi-decadal periods of decreased summer temperature. In a few cases, such as in Arctic Alaska and western Canada, some glacier advances occurred during relatively warm wet times. The timing and scale of glacier fluctuations over the past two millennia varies greatly from region to region. However, the number of glacier advances shows a clear pattern for the high, mid and low latitudes and, hence, points to common forcing factors acting at the global scale. Globally, during the first millennium CE glaciers were smaller than between the advances in 13th to early 20th centuries CE. The precise extent of glacier retreat in the first millennium is not well defined; however, the most conservative estimates indicate that during the 1st and 2nd centuries in some regions glaciers were smaller than at the end of 20th/early 21st centuries. Other periods of glacier retreat are identified regionally during the 5th and 8th centuries in the European Alps, in the 3rde6th and 9th centuries in Norway, during the 10the13th centuries in southern Alaska, and in the 18th century in Spitsbergen. However, no single period of common global glacier retreat of centennial duration, except for the past century, has yet been identified. In contrast, the view that the Little Ice Age was a period of global glacier expansion beginning in the 13th century (or earlier) and reaching a maximum in 17the19th centuries is supported by our data. The pattern of glacier variations in the past two millennia corresponds with cooling in reconstructed temperature records at the continental and hemispheric scales. The number of glacier advances also broadly matches periods showing high volcanic activity and low solar irradiance over the past two millennia, although the resolution of most glacier chronologies is not enough for robust Quaternary Science Reviews 149 (2016) 61e90 statistical correlations. Glacier retreat in the past 100e150 years corresponds to the anthropogenic global temperature increase. Many questions concerning the relative strength of forcing factors that drove glacier variations in the past 2 ka still remain.
... Prior descriptions of the Holocene behaviour of glaciers in the Boundary Ranges result from field studies at outlet glaciers flowing from the Frank Mackie, Todd, Cambria and Andrei icefields (Hoffman and Smith 2013;Jackson et al. 2008;Mood and Smith 2015). Based on stratigraphic analyses of exposed sediments and drill cores analyses, Clague and Mathews (1992) and Clague and Mathewes (1996) ...
... Two floating chronologies (Chron. E and F) cross-date to the living chronologies collected by Jackson et al. (2008) in the Todd Icefield area (Fig. 9). To allow for comparison with the absolute dates assigned to Chron. ...
... The absolute ages assigned to Chron. E and F were derived by cross-dating with living chronologies collected by Jackson et al. (2008) in the Todd Icefield area. To allow for comparison between the chronologies, the relative ages assigned to Chron. ...
Frank Mackie Glacier repeatedly advanced across the Bowser River valley in northwestern British Columbia to impound Tide Lake during the Holocene. The most recent infilling of Tide Lake was associated with a late Little Ice Age glacier advance and ended around 1930 when the lake catastrophically drained. Over the last century Frank Mackie Glacier has retreated and down wasted to reveal multiple glaciogenic sedimentary units within the proximal faces of prominent lateral moraines. The units are separated by buried in-situ tree stumps and laterally contiguous wood mats deposited on paleosols. Dendroglaciological and radiocarbon dating of these wood remains show that Frank Mackie Glacier expanded into standing forests at 3710-3300, 2700-2200, 1700-1290, 900-500, and 250-100 cal. yr BP. These advances coincide closely in time with the previously established Tide Lake glacier dam chronology and with the Holocene history of other glaciers in the Bowser River watershed. The findings emphasize the likelihood that most glaciers within northwestern British Columbia underwent substantial size and mass balance changes over the last 4000 years, and often spent hundreds of years in advanced positions before retreating.
... Conspicuous evidence for cooling at 3300e2500 cal BP also comes from glacier records. Glaciers advanced at ca. 3300e2700 cal BP in North America including Alaska (Denton and Karl en, 1973;Armour et al., 2002;Wiles et al., 2002;Levy et al., 2004;Barclay et al., 2009;Jackson et al., 2008;Craig and Smith, 2013;Menounos et al., 2013), northeastern Russia (e.g. Savoskul, 1999), Europe (e.g. ...
The late-Holocene shift from Picea glauca (white spruce) to Picea mariana (black spruce) forests marked the establishment of modern boreal forests in Alaska. To understand the patterns and drivers of this vegetational change and the associated late-Holocene environmental dynamics, we analyzed radiocarbon-dated sediments from Grizzly Lake for chironomids, diatoms, pollen, macrofossils, charcoal, element composition, particle size, and magnetic properties for the period 4100-1800 cal BP. Chironomid assemblages reveal two episodes of decreased July temperature, at ca. 3300-3150 (ca -1 °C) and 2900-2550 cal BP (ca -2 °C). These episodes coincided with climate change elsewhere in the Northern Hemisphere, atmospheric reorganization, and low solar activity. Diatom-inferred lake levels dropped by ca. 5 m at 3200 cal BP, suggesting dry conditions during the period 3200-1800 cal BP. P. glauca declined and P. mariana expanded at ca. 3200 cal BP; this vegetational change was linked to diatom-inferred low lake levels and thus decreased moisture availability. Forest cover declined at 3300-3100, 2800-2500 and 2300-2100 cal BP and soil erosion as inferred from increased values of Al, K, Si, Ti, and Ca intensified, when solar irradiance was low. Plant taxa adapted to disturbance and cold climate (e.g. Alnus viridis, shrub Betula, Epilobium) expanded during these periods of reduced forest cover. This open vegetation type was associated with high fire activity that peaked at 2800 cal BP, when climatic conditions were particularly cold and dry. Forest recovery lagged behind subsequent climate warming (≤+3 °C) by ca. 75-225 years. Our multiproxy data set suggests that P. glauca was dominant under warm-moist climatic conditions, whereas P. mariana prevailed under cold-dry and warm-dry conditions. This pattern implies that climatic warming, as anticipated for this century, may promote P. glauca expansions, if moisture availability will be sufficiently high, while P. mariana may expand under dry conditions, possibly exacerbating climate impacts on the fire regime.
... The Monarch, Ha-Iltzuk, Homathko, and Lillooet icefields are prominent source regions for many valley glaciers in the Pacific Ranges (Fig. 1). In both areas, large outlet glaciers flow from icefields into deeply entrenched valleys, where multiple Holocene expansion and retreat events left behind prominent terminal and lateral moraine complexes (e.g., Jackson et al., 2008;Lakeman et al., 2008;Craig and Smith, 2013). ...
... Wood mats consisting of boles and stumps found pressed into paleosols can also provide evidence for a glacial advance (Fig. 3), with the presence of bark and/or perimeter wood necessary for assigning an accurate kill date (e.g. Reyes and Clague, 2004;Jackson et al., 2008). Randomly positioned wood remains found in glacial sediments are less reliable for dating glacier advances, as these deposits are out of context and may have been entrained from older deposits or represent the remains of avalanche-transported trees overridden by subsequent ice expansion (Table 1). ...
... Todd Icefield is located at 1400e1500 m asl within the headwaters of Todd Creek (Fig. 4D). Until the 1950s five tributary glaciers coalesced to form Todd Glacier (Jackson et al., 2008). Historic frontal retreat was accompanied by extensive erosion of lateral moraines on the valley walls. ...
The Coast Mountains flank the Pacific Ocean in western British Columbia, Canada. Subdivided into the southern Pacific Ranges, the central Kitimat Ranges and the northern Boundary Ranges, the majority of large glaciers and icefields in the Coast Mountains are located in the Boundary and Pacific ranges. Prior descriptions of the Holocene glacial history of this region indicate that the Holocene was characterized by repeated episodes of ice expansion and retreat. Recent site-specific investigations augment our understanding of the regional character and duration of these events. In this paper, previously reported and new radiocarbon evidence is integrated to provide an updated regional assessment.
The earliest evidence of glacier expansion in the Coast Mountains comes from the Boundary Ranges at 8.9 and 7.8 ka and in the Pacific Ranges at 8.5-8.2 ka, with the latter advance corresponding to an interval of rapid, global climate deterioration. Although generally warm and dry climates from 7.3-5.3 ka likely limited the size of glaciers in the region, there is radiocarbon evidence for advances over the interval from 7.3-6.0 and at 5.4-5.3 ka in the Pacific Ranges. Following these advances, glaciers in the Pacific Ranges expanded down valley at 4.8-4.6, 4.4-4.0, 3.5-2.6, 1.4-1.2, and 0.8-0.4 ka, while glaciers in Boundary Ranges were advancing at 4.1-4.0, 3.7-3.4, 3.1-2.8, 2.3, 1.7-1.1, and 0.8-0.4 ka. After 0.4 ka, it appears that most glaciers in the Coast Mountains continued to expand to attain their maximum Holocene extents by the early 18th to late 19th centuries. This enhanced record of glacier activity highlights the temporal synchrony of Holocene glacier activity in the Coast Mountains. Individual expansion events in the mid- to late Holocene broadly correspond to intervals of regional glacier activity reported in the Canadian Rocky Mountains, in Alaska, and on high-elevation volcanic peaks in Washington State.
... yr BP advance, Franklin Glacier down wasted and retreated, with no evidence for subsequent expansion until 1570-1480 cal. yr BP (site 9) during a broadly recognized period of glacier activity in western North America (Jackson et al., 2008;Reyes et al., 2006). In the Mt. ...
Franklin Glacier is an 18-km-long valley glacier that originates in a broad icefield below the west face of Mt. Waddington in the central British Columbia Coast Mountains, Canada. Radiocarbon-dated wood samples from the proximal faces of lateral moraines flanking Franklin Glacier show that the glacier expanded at least nine times since 13,000 cal yr BP. A probable Younger Dryas advance of Franklin Glacier at 12910-12690 cal yr BP followed the late glacial retreat and down wasting of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet from ca. 16000 to 12900 cal yr BP. During the succeeding early Holocene warm period, Franklin Glacier appears to have retreated significantly, leaving no record of glacial expansion until the mid-Holocene when it repeatedly advanced at 6360-6280, 5470-5280, and 4770-4580 cal yr BP. Down wasting of the glacier surface after ca. 4770-4580 cal yr BP was followed by intervals of expansion at 4260-4080, 3210-3020, and 2620-2380 cal yr BP. Following ice expansion at ca. 2620-2380 cal yr BP into trees over 224 years in age, there is no record of the glacier activity until 1570-1480 cal yr BP when Franklin Glacier thickened and advanced into young subalpine fir trees. During the Little Ice Age, advances at 800-680, 610-560, and 570-510 cal yr BP preceded a mid-19th to early-20th century advance that saw Franklin Glacier attain its maximum Holocene extent. The dendroglaciological record at Franklin Glacier is among the most comprehensive recovered from the British Columbia Coast Mountains and showcases the complexity of mid- to late Holocene glacier expansion in the region.
... This is especially true since the LIA cold period (ca 1270e1860 AD 1 ) led to some of the most prominent Holocene glacier advances in the Northern Hemisphere (Davis et al., 2009). This problem can be overcome, at least partly, by studying composite lateral moraine stratigraphies in order to obtain a more complete picture of Neoglacial advances (R€ othlisberger and Schneebeli, 1979;Osborn, 1986;Holzhauser and Zumbühl, 1996;Osborn et al., 2001Osborn et al., , 2012Osborn et al., , 2013Reyes and Clague, 2004;Koch et al., 2007;Jackson et al., 2008). The Neoglacial is defined here as the second part of the Holocene during which alpine glaciers experienced repeated advances close to the Holocene maxima. ...
... AD (1480e1450 cal. BP), separated by a small retreat (Jackson et al., 2008;Hoffman and Smith, 2013). In Alaska, the FMA has been dendro-dated at several glacier forefields, with maxima reached between the 7th and the 10th centuries AD (Barclay et al., 2009(Barclay et al., , 2013Wiles et al., 2011;Fig. ...
Holocene glacier records from the western European Alps are still sparse, although a number of sites are well suited to constraining pre-and early-Little Ice Age (LIA) glacier advances. The present study provides the first dendrochronologically-based and calendar-dated Neoglacial glacier chronology for the Mont Blanc massif, French Alps. It is based on the analysis of over 240 glacially buried Pinus cembra subfossil logs and wood remains found either embedded-in-till or as detrital material in the Mer de Glace right lateral moraine. Only a few of the samples were found to be 'formally in situ' but we show that some logs were 'virtually in situ' (not rooted but showing little or no evidence of reworking) and could be used to accurately reconstruct past glacier margin behavior in space and time. Uncertainties regarding the other samples may relate to original growth location and/or to outer wood decay. The resulting dates (followed by a 'þ') were therefore considered maximum-limiting ages for glacier advances. The main burial events e interpreted as glacier advances e occurred between ca 1655þ and 1544þ BC, between ca 1230þ and 1105þ BC, between ca 1013þ and 962þ/937þ BC, at ca 802e777 BC, after 608þ BC, between 312 and 337 AD, between ca 485þ AD and 606þ AD, between 1120 and 1178 AD, between ca 1248 and 1278þ/1296 AD, and after 1352þ AD. These advances predate the late LIA maxima known from historical sources. The magnitude of the advances gradually increased to culminate in three near-Neoglacial maxima during the 7th, 12th and 13th centuries AD, followed by a first LIA/Neoglacial maximum in the second half of the 14th century AD. The pattern of Neoglacial events described here is coherent with Central and Eastern Alpine glacier chronologies. This indicates marked synchronicity of late Holocene glacier variability and forcing at a regional scale, although occasional differences could be detected between 'Western' and 'Eastern' records. The Mer de Glace record also confirms the link between the timing of sediment erosion in a high-elevation glaciated Alpine catchment and subsequent deposition in the sub-alpine Lake Bourget.
... Moreover, glacier advancing phases have been recognized in the Russian Altai (4,900-4,200 cal. years BP; Akkem stage) according to Agatova et al. (2012), prior to 3,000 14 C year BP in northern British Columbia Coast Mountains according to Jackson et al. (2008), and in 3,167-2,737 cal. year BP for the Scimitar in British Columbia Coast Mountains, Canada, according to Craig and Smith (2013). ...
Glacier history can be reconstructed thanks to geomorphological documentation of previous advances, dating of glacial deposits, and investigation of buried soils and included organic material, which may be linked to vegetation dynamics. A buried log was retrieved at 2,385 m a.s.l. on the northeast-facing slope of the upper Forni Valley (Italian Alps), where the homonymous valley glacier is located. The glacier forefield is currently facing an early successional forest expansion after the ongoing tongue retreat, mainly dominated by young Picea abies Karst. and Larix decidua Mill. specimens. From dendrochronological and radiocarbon analyses on the retrieved log, coupled with sedimentological and geopedological data, the past environmental and glacier conditions were reconstructed. The log belongs to the Stone pine species (Pinus cembra L.), it has 283 tree rings and became buried in the deposit in the Subboreal, after 4,201–4,032 cal. year BP, age of the outermost tree ring. The retrieved log reveals that during the Subboreal in the Forni Valley, likely much older specimens of Stone pine were present on the slopes, in strong contrast to present-day conditions. The log’s tree-ring growth rates were similar to those presented during the Little Ice Age peak by Stone pine trees of comparable age growing nowadays at the treeline.
... An FMA of Scimitar Glacier at this time would be contemporaneous with the FMA of Tiedemann Glacier (Fulton 1971;Larocque and Smith 2003), where Ryder and Thomson (1986) interpreted wood remains found within fluvial deposits to describe a glacial advance at this time. An expansion of Scimitar Glacier in 1568-1412 cal years BP is also coeval with FMAs at other locations in British Columbia (Reyes and Clague 2004;Jackson et al. 2008;Maurer et al. 2012), Alaska (Wiles et al. 1999;Calkin et al. 2001), and Washington State . Scimitar Glacier thus responded in concert to a regional positive mass balance event at this time (Reyes et al. 2006). ...
... The late LIA advance of Scimitar Glacier during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries is similar to expansion records from nearby glaciers , when cooler climatic conditions (Wiles et al. 1996;Pitman and Smith 2012) led to positive glacier mass balances (Larocque and Smith 2005;Wood et al. 2011). The expansion of Scimitar Glacier occurred at a time when similar advances were underway elsewhere in the Coast Mountains (Desloges and Ryder 1990;Smith and Desloges 2000;Allen and Smith 2007;Jackson et al. 2008;Harvey and Smith 2013), Alaska (Wiles et al. 1999), Washington State (Heikkinen 1984;Osborn et al. 2012), and the Canadian Rocky Mountains (Luckman 2000). ...
Scimitar Glacier originates below the northeast face of Mt. Waddington in the southern British Columbia Coast Mountains and flows 18 km down valley to calve into a proglacial lake. At several locations, downwasting of the glacier surface has exposed stacked till units separated by wood-bearing horizons in the proximal slopes of lateral moraines flanking the glacier. Historical moraine collapse and erosional breaching has also revealed the remains of standing trees buried in moraine-dammed lake sediments. Radiocarbon and tree-ring dating show that Scimitar Glacier expanded down valley at least three times in the late Holocene. The earliest evidence found for ice expansion indicates Scimitar Glacier was advancing in 3167–2737 cal years BP in association with the regional Tiedemann Advance. Following this advance, the glacier downwasted prior to expanding in 1568–1412 cal years BP during the First Millennial Advance. A final period phase of moraine construction was initiated during late Little Ice Age glacial expansion before A.D. 1742 and extended until at least A.D. 1851, after which Scimitar Glacier began to recede and downwaste. This record is comparable to that recorded at other glaciers in the southern British Columbia Coast Mountains and confirms the long-term relationship between regional climate trends and glacier behaviour in this setting.
