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This article is focused on empirical studies on factors that may facilitate the effective learning and teaching of writing. Three domains of psychological oriented writing research are presented: writing processes, learning to write and writing to learn. First, some results from cognitive psychology focusing on writing processes (e.g. Bereiter & Sc...
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... sequence of acts and states in the physics experiment was as follows (see Fig. 8). First, one takes an Erlenmeyer flask, puts a cork with a hole on the flask and then puts a funnel in the hole. Then one puts some water in the funnel. The water does not flow from the funnel into the Erlenmeyer, the air in the Erlenmeyer needs space and will not Psychology and the teaching of writing 137 let the water in. Then, one ...
Context 2
... sequence of acts and states in the physics experiment was as follows (see Fig. 8). First, one takes an Erlenmeyer flask, puts a cork with a hole on the flask and then puts a funnel in the hole. Then one puts some water in the funnel. The water does not flow from the funnel into the Erlenmeyer, the air in the Erlenmeyer needs space and will not Psychology and the teaching of writing 137 let the water in. Then, one ...
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Citations
... From a training point of view, the decision to show students how an expert revises a text was motivated by empirical evidence on the benefits of observational learning, whereby a trainee learns by observing the actions and hearing the descriptions of an expert before putting what he/she has learnt into practice (Rijlaarsdam et al., 2005). Through observational learning, the students/trainees can focus their attention on the actions of the expert by avoiding the mental effort that would be needed if they did the writing themselves (Kellogg, 2008). ...
Communicating clearly about their socially responsible activities is becoming increasingly important for companies, as a growing number of stakeholders with different goals, knowledge, and language skills seek information on corporate social responsibility (CSR). Furthermore, the ability to communicate clearly is particularly appreciated in the workplace. To fill a gap in CSR communication training, this article describes the development and preliminary evaluation of an interdisciplinary and multimodal online module whose goal is to train Dutch-speaking business students in the production of accessible CSR content in English. After presenting our module, we discuss its implications for future training and for corporate communication.
... Writing can be a tool for communicating and learning in content area subjects. However, writing is a complex and demanding task, as writing researchers have repeatedly pointed out (Kellogg, 2008;Rijlaarsdam, Braaksma, Couzijn et al., 2005). In the writing process model of Flower and Hayes (1980), updated by Hayes in 1996, writing is depicted as a complex problem-solving process. ...
Developing adolescents' writing ability is an important goal of present-day education, but hard to attain. In order to write well, writers must possess knowledge about what to write (content knowledge) and how to write well in a particular genre (metacognitive knowledge). Becoming a proficient writer across genres and disciplines requires systematic and explicit instruction. We investigated the effects of domain-specific writing instruction on students' knowledge of writing and text quality in the context of argumentative writing in history. Participants were three history teachers and one Dutch language teacher and their classes (Grade 8, 10 and 11). The teachers each designed a writing intervention based on design principles for effective writing instruction. A pre-posttest quasi-ex-perimental design was used to investigate the effects of each intervention. Results showed a positive effect of instruction on writing knowledge; students in all three interventions produced more writing advice, especially more genre-specific and product-related recommendations. With respect to text quality an improvement on genre-specific aspects was found. Correlational analyses between knowledge of writing and text quality after the intervention only yielded positive effects for the intervention in Grade 8. In sum, this study shows that teacher-designed interventions in secondary education may improve adoles-cents' knowledge of writing and quality of writing.
... In fact, it has been noted before that there is not one perfect way to write an assignment. The best path to a good written assignment will depend on the learner's characteristics and skills, as well as on task characteristics (Rijlaarsdam et al., 2005). ...
In the present study, we investigated whether online learning behaviours (navigation and writing activities) mediated the relation between learner characteristics (prior knowledge, vocabulary knowledge, working memory, and motivation) and declarative knowledge. Specifically, we investigated whether the quality of participants' written assignments could further explain this relation. For this purpose, 62 fifth-grade children participated in a WebQuest hypermedia assignment on the subject of the heart. Results showed that online learning behaviours did not mediate the relations between learner characteristics and declarative knowledge when the assignment quality was not included in the model. Adding assignment quality, however, revealed two serial mediation models. Prior knowledge predicted declarative knowledge via the writing activity “copying behaviour” and assignment quality, and vocabulary knowledge predicted declarative knowledge via the navigation activity “time spent on assignment pages” and assignment quality. These results show the importance of taking into account assignment quality when investigating knowledge acquisition in hypermedia environments. © 2018 The Authors. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... This complexity becomes daunting when the task is in L2, as in this case language proficiency level also comes into play (Plakans, 2009). Arguably, as observation may activate the "learner" capacity in a learning-to-write activity, students can use more of their cognitive resources for metacognitive and procedural knowledge instead of focusing predominantly on the production process, (Rijlaarsdam, Braaksma, Couzijn, Janssen, Kieft, & Broekkamp, 2005). This may be an effective strategy for them to complete synthesis tasks, where the "procedures" (i.e., organizing, selecting and connecting) are more burdensome than in the other writing tasks. ...
We implemented an intervention of four lessons and tested the effects of two instructional modes as compared to the regular curriculum practices for completing a synthesis task at the preparatory program of a Turkish university. Participants were 48 upper-intermediate English as a Foreign Language learners (mean age = 18) assigned to three conditions. The presentational condition received direct strategy instruction supported by mnemonics; the modeling condition observed a video of a peer doing the task using the same strategies mnemonic. In the control condition, there was no explicit reference to strategies; rather, students inferred the necessary information about writing an effective synthesis text from the instruction and the lesson materials. We hypothesized that both of the experimental conditions would have a positive effect on students' synthesis text quality and writing processes and that modeling of explicit strategy use would have an effect over and above the other conditions. Results showed that students in the modeling condition improved their source use skills significantly more than students in the presentational condition, which was maintained in the delayed posttest four weeks later. No statistically significant condition effect was observed for content and authenticity of students' texts. The modeling condition also showed and reported a more process-oriented approach to writing.
... This complexity becomes daunting when the task is in L2, as in this case language proficiency level also comes into play (Plakans, 2009). Arguably, as observation may activate the "learner" capacity in a learning-to-write activity, students can use more of their cognitive resources for metacognitive and procedural knowledge instead of focusing predominantly on the production process, (Rijlaarsdam, Braaksma, Couzijn, Janssen, Kieft, & Broekkamp, 2005). This may be an effective strategy for them to complete synthesis tasks, where the "procedures" (i.e., organizing, selecting and connecting) are more burdensome than in the other writing tasks. ...
We implemented an intervention of four lessons and tested the effects of two instructional modes as compared to the regular curriculum practices for completing a synthesis task at the preparatory program of a Turkish university. Participants were 48 upper-intermediate English as a Foreign Language learners (mean age = 18) assigned to three conditions. The presentational condition received direct strategy instruction supported by mnemonics; the modeling condition observed a video of a peer doing the task using the same strategies mnemonic. In the control condition, there was no explicit reference to strategies; rather, students inferred the necessary information about writing an effective synthesis text from the instruction and the lesson materials. We hypothesized that both of the experimental conditions would have a positive effect on students' synthesis text quality and writing processes and that modeling of explicit strategy use would have an effect over and above the other conditions. Results showed that students in the modeling condition improved their source use skills significantly more than students in the presentational condition, which was maintained in the delayed posttest four weeks later. No statistically significant condition effect was observed for content and authenticity of students' texts. The modeling condition also showed and reported a more process-oriented approach to writing.
... This complexity becomes daunting when the task is in L2, as in this case language proficiency level also comes into play (Plakans, 2009). Arguably, as observation may activate the "learner" capacity in a learning-to-write activity, students can use more of their cognitive resources for metacognitive and procedural knowledge instead of focusing predominantly on the production process, (Rijlaarsdam, Braaksma, Couzijn, Janssen, Kieft, & Broekkamp, 2005). This may be an effective strategy for them to complete synthesis tasks, where the "procedures" (i.e., organizing, selecting and connecting) are more burdensome than in the other writing tasks. ...
We implemented an intervention of four lessons and tested the effects of two instructional modes as compared to the regular curriculum practices for completing a synthesis task at the preparatory program of a Turkish university. Participants were 48 upper-intermediate English as a Foreign Language learners (mean age = 18) assigned to three conditions. The presentational condition received direct strategy instruction supported by mnemonics; the modeling condition observed a video of a peer doing the task using the same strategies mnemonic. In the control condition, there was no explicit reference to strategies; rather, students inferred the necessary information about writing an effective synthesis text from the instruction and the lesson materials. We hypothesized that both of the experimental conditions would have a positive effect on students' synthesis text quality and writing processes and that modeling of explicit strategy use would have an effect over and above the other conditions. Results showed that students in the modeling condition improved their source use skills significantly more than students in the presentational condition, which was maintained in the delayed posttest four weeks later. No statistically significant condition effect was observed for content and authenticity of students' texts. The modeling condition also showed and reported a more process-oriented approach to writing.
... Learning how to write essays is a complex process that is difficult to master (Rijlaarsdam et al. 2005). Essay writing forms the foundation of many assessments in higher education and mastering essay writing is a requirement for progression within the higher education environment. ...
Social cognitive learning theory has shown that observational learning positively influences essay writing development in high-school students, and that self-efficacy impacts on motivation. This study investigated the relative contribution of model observation, model evaluation, post-submission feedback, and factors relating to self-efficacy, as measured through academic confidence, in the essay writing development of 142 university students. The research compared students’ essay marks between two semesters in order to explore whether observational learning had an impact on the development of the complex skills involved. The results revealed that all students benefit from traditional feedback and higher levels of self-efficacy when developing their essay writing performance. Underperforming students particularly benefited from actual essay writing. However, contrary to the predictions drawn from the literature, students in this study did not appear to benefit from observational learning when developing their skills. Limits to social learning theory are discussed.
... L2 writers tend to adopt a more systematic approach (Van Weijen, Van den Bergh, Rijlaarsdam, & Sanders, 2008;Victori, 1999), and appear to adhere more rigorously to the task instructions. Because they tend to stick closely to a fixed routine or scenario, L2 writers have also been found to adopt a smaller range of writing strategies across different writing tasks (Rijlaarsdam et al., 2005). ...
... L2 learners' test-taking strategy could provide an alternative explanation for content scores. L2 writers prefer to stay closer to the source material than L1 writers (Keck, 2006(Keck, , 2014Wu, 2013) and tend to stick closely to a fixed routine or scenario (Rijlaarsdam et al., 2005). The binary content criteria in STRT actually award candidates who stick closely to the prompt and directly -though not literally -reuse elements from the input material. ...
This study compares the results of three groups of participants on the writing component of a centralised L2 university entrance test at the B2 level in Flanders, Belgium. The study investigates whether all Flemish candidates have a B2-level in Dutch upon university entrance, and whether L1 test takers outperform L2 candidates who learned Dutch at home or in Flanders. The results show that, even though the Flemish group outperformed both groups of L2 candidates, not all Flemish candidates reached the B2 level. Additionally, the study compares the results of two groups of L2 users on the same test and shows that candidates who studied Dutch in a Dutch-speaking context do not necessarily outscore candidates who did not. The primary methods of analysis include non-parametric regression and Multi-Faceted Rasch. The results are interpreted in terms of Hulstijn’s conceptualisation of Higher Language Competence, and the study abroad literature. Implications for the university entrance policy are discussed at the end of the paper.
... The cognitive apprenticeship approach in writing has been widely investigated as it has shown fruitful outcomes (Zimmerman and Kitsantas, 2002;Rijlaarsdam et al., 2005;Graham and Perin, 2007;Kellogg, 2008). The principles of cognitive apprenticeship are characterized by learning through observing rather than learning by doing (Kellogg, 2008) and highlight the principles of social learning through mentor observation (Roggoff, 2008). ...
... Through cognitive apprenticeship, the learners' attention is focused on the mentor's behavior rather than being involved in cognitive processes and motor execution (Rijlaarsdam et al., 2005). Learning to write an effective piece of writing is a difficult task, one that requires an extensive range of knowledge that must be available in long-term memory. ...
Empirical studies have shown that anxiety and negative emotion can hinder language acquisition. The present study implemented a writing instructional model so as to investigate its effects on the writing anxiety levels of English Foreign Language learners. The study was conducted with 177 participants, who were administered the Second Language Writing Anxiety Inventory (SLWAI; Cheng, 2004) that assesses somatic, cognitive and behavioral anxiety, both at baseline and following the implementation of a writing instructional model. The hypothesis stated that the participant's writing anxiety levels would lessen following the provision of a writing strategy-based procedural facilitative environment that fosters cognitive apprenticeship. The initial hypothesis was supported by the findings. Specifically, in the final measurement statistical significant differences appeared where participants in the experimental group showed notable lower mean values of the three factors of anxiety, a factor that largely can be attributed to the content of the intervention program applied to this specific group. The findings validate that Foreign Language writing anxiety negatively effects Foreign Language learning and performance. The findings also support the effectiveness of strategy-based procedural facilitative writing environments that foster cognitive apprenticeship, so as to enhance language skill development and reduce feelings of Foreign Language writing anxiety.
... These results match those observed in much of the L2 writing research, that translating from L1 to L2 usually brings some benefits in terms of organization and complexity to the L2 writing, especially for students at a lower proficiency level (see for example, Beare and Bourdages 2007;Cohen and Brooks-Carson 2001;Woodall 2002). Also, these findings are consistent with those in linguistic studies, reporting that (mental) translation from L1 to L2 appears to be conceptually mediated while (mental) translation from L2 to L1 is lexically mediated (Centeno-Cortés and Jiménez 2004; Rijlaarsdam et al. 2005;Stevenson 2005;Wang and Wen 2002). For example, if the low proficient writers experience overload due to the task complexity that L2 writing often entails, then they likely revert to mentally using their L1 for solving the demanding conceptual activities, that is, the ''richer'' L1 KS may be conceptually imparted onto the ''weaker'' L2 KS. ...
In order to further validate and extend the application of recent knowledge structure (KS) measures to second language settings, this investigation explores how second language (L2, English) situation models are influenced by first language (L1, Korean) translation tasks. Fifty Korean low proficient English language learners were asked to read an L2 story and then complete L2 concept map and summary writing tasks, with or without an intervening L1 production tasks (Translated versus Directed conditions). Posttest comprehension was measured using the TOEFL multiple-choice items associated with the story (both in L2). KS elicited as concept maps and as text summaries were used to represent the situation models before, during, and after writing. For analysis, all of the participants’ maps and writing artifacts were converted into Pathfinder Networks (PFNets) that were analyzed using two distinctly different approaches, correlation of the raw proximity data and also degree centrality of the PFNets, in order to analyze the PFNets statistically and to visually describe KS cognitive state changes over time. The correlation results showed that the Translated Writing participants’ L2 KS relative to the Directed Writing condition are more similar to that of an expert and are significantly correlated with comprehension posttest scores. Including L1 tasks substantially improved the qualities of the L2 KS artifacts and underlying mental structures related to reading comprehension. In addition, the average centrality results showed that the KS ‘form’ of the participants’ PFNets who translated were relational network structures relative to the Directed Writing group’s (English only) PFNets that had a more linear structure that matched the text surface structure, suggesting a fundamental way that L1 and L2 cognitive processing differs.
