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![Systematic illustration of the rystal structure (hexagonal) of flake graphite. Adapted from [42,65].](profile/Allah-Jara-2/publication/332545203/figure/fig1/AS:867648262918145@1583874874049/Systematic-illustration-of-the-rystal-structure-hexagonal-of-flake-graphite-Adapted.png)
Systematic illustration of the rystal structure (hexagonal) of flake graphite. Adapted from [42,65].
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![Fig. 5. (a)-(f) SEM images of bare graphite [232]. (g) Schematic views...](profile/Allah-Jara-2/publication/332545203/figure/fig3/AS:867648262918146@1583874874146/a-f-SEM-images-of-bare-graphite-232-g-Schematic-views-of-the-raw-natural_Q320.jpg)
![Fig. 7. The working principle of a PEMFC device [236].](profile/Allah-Jara-2/publication/332545203/figure/fig5/AS:867648262918149@1583874874279/The-working-principle-of-a-PEMFC-device-236_Q320.jpg)
Graphite has a stacked planar sp 2 -hybridized C 6 ring structure, displaying a polymorphism with rhombohedral, hexagonal, and turbostratic. Based on its structure-property relationship, it affords a variety of technologically innovative applications or performances in industries, such as lithium-ion batteries, fuel cells, two dimensional graphene,...
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... indispensable. Graphite has a layered structure with pronounced cleavage parallel to the layers. These properties are very different from those normal (perpendicular) to the layers [64]. Within the monoatomic layers, carbon atoms share a strong covalent bond, but relatively weak bonds hold the layers together through p-p interactions as shown in Fig. 1. The figure demonstrates a systematic atomic model of flake ...
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... indispensable. Graphite has a layered structure with pronounced cleavage parallel to the layers. These properties are very different from those normal (perpendicular) to the layers [64]. Within the monoatomic layers, carbon atoms share a strong covalent bond, but relatively weak bonds hold the layers together through p-p interactions as shown in Fig. 1. The figure demonstrates a systematic atomic model of flake ...
Citations
... Graphite's excellent electrical conductivity, along with its resistance to chemicals and low light absorption, make it invaluable for advanced applications. It is used in the creation of medical devices like artificial hearts, in flexible electronics, aerospace, nuclear technologies, water purification systems, as lubricants, and as electrode materials in fuel cells and anodes for lithium-ion batteries [162]. On other hand, Graphene has found its place in the energy sector, utilized in solar cells, fuel cells, batteries, and supercapacitors. ...
Hydrocarbons are important for many countries' economy and represent a major part of the energy supply chain, at least in the foreseeable future. The proven oil and gas reserves globally represent a formidable energy resource that could meet the world's current energy demand for approximately 100 years. As the world shifts to a low carbon future, the market for oil and gas will be affected. Hence, the development of approaches and technologies to valorize these hydrocarbons, while reducing the impact on the environmental will be required. One such approach is to extract hydrogen (H 2) from hydrocarbons while capturing and using or storing carbon dioxide (CO 2). Another near-term economical solution that paves the way for scalable hydrogen infrastructure is methane (CH 4) pyrolysis, also called thermal methane cracking, methane decomposition or turquoise hydrogen. This comprehensive review examines the state-of-the-art in methane pyrolysis for hydrogen production and valuable solid carbon, highlighting the method's potential and addressing the persistent challenges that impede its commercialization. The study evaluates various approaches, including solid catalysts, molten mediums, and plasma-assisted methods. The limitations and drawbacks of each technique are discussed. The synergy between the hydrogen and carbon industries is highlighted, emphasizing the need for collaborative efforts to unlock the full potential of methane pyrolysis. In addition to evaluating existing challenges, the review provides strategic recommendations for overcoming hurdles, including innovations in catalyst design, optimization of molten media, and industry partnerships. It also emphasizes the importance of policy engagement, comprehensive cost and lifecycle analysis, and technological innovations to propel methane pyrolysis toward commercial success. The comprehensive assessment presented in this review aims to guide future research directions, foster collaboration between academia and industry, and contribute to the development of a sustainable and economically viable methane pyrolysis process for hydrogen production and valuable solid carbon.
... Graphite materials include natural and artificial graphite, which is widely used for developing energy storage in various modern equipment. In addition, natural graphite can be divided into vein (lump), graphite, crystalline (flake), and aphanitic (microcrystalline, amorphous) graphite in terms of crystal particle size [52,53]. Graphite used in electrical discharge machining is classified according to grain size. ...
Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is a rapidly evolving method in modern industry that manufactures highly complex components. The physical properties of a tool electrode material are significant factors in determining the effectiveness of the process, as well as the characteristics of the machined surfaces. The current trend of implementing graphite tool electrodes in manufacturing processes is observed. Innovative material engineering solutions enable graphite production with miniaturized grain size. However, the correlation between the graphite electrode grain size and the mechanism of the process removal in the EDM is a challenge for its widespread implementation in the industry. This research introduces a new method to evaluate the impact of the graphite electrode grain size and machining parameters on the material removal effectiveness, relative tool wear rate, and surface roughness (Ra) of Hastelloy C-22 following EDM with negative polarity. The study utilized new graphite materials with a grain size of 1 µm (POCO AF-5) and 10 µm (POCO EDM-180). An assessment of the impact of the EDM process parameters on the technological parameters and the development of the surface roughness was carried out. Electrical discharge machining with fine-grained graphite electrodes increases process efficiency and reduces tool wear. Graphite grains detached from the tool electrode affect the stability of electrical discharges and the efficiency of the process. Based on the experimental results, mathematical models were developed, enabling the prediction of machining effects to advance state-of-the-art manufacturing processes. The obtained mathematical models can be implemented in modern industrial EDM machines as guidelines for selecting adequate machining parameters depending on the desired process efficiency, tool wear rate, and surface roughness for advanced materials.
... The importance of graphite demands the prospection of new ores and the evaluation of former quarries. Jara et al. provide insight into the current graphite market and its increasing trend [2], while Rui et al. offer insights into resource utilization, environmental aspects, and sustainability [3]. Geophysical methods are a suitable and relatively cost-efficient alternative for exploration as they do not require drilling or analysis of samples. ...
Graphite, a critical raw material, prompts interest in assessing former quarries for volumetric content, driving the need for accurate prospection techniques. We explore the efficacy of spectral induced polarization (SIP) imaging at field scale for this purpose. Field measurements in a quarry with unknown graphite content underscore the need for assessment before drilling due to abrupt topography. Due to the lack of ground truth required to calibrate existing petrophysical models, we propose using SIP laboratory measurements to achieve the quantitative interpretation of the imaging results. We conducted experiments at two scales: rock plugs for material response and ground rocks of varying sizes for textural analysis. The rock plugs allow us to investigate the response of the material, while the ground samples permit us to understand changes in the SIP response for varying textural properties. Our lab work establishes power-law relationships between polarization (expressed in terms of normalized chargeability) and graphite content, as well as relaxation time and grain size. Salinity dependence is noted between chargeability, normalized chargeability, and relaxation time. Utilizing these findings, we provide a quantitative interpretation of field SIP imaging results.
... The price of pure graphite is still quite expensive. Aside from India and China (the world's main graphite mining nations), natural graphite resources are very limited globally [44]. On the other hand, the process for making synthetic graphite is extremely difficult, costly, and timeconsuming, and the basic ingredients are in short supply [45]. ...
... Graphite is a non-metallic mineral resource that provides superior chemical inertness, refractoriness, lubricity, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and UV stability (Crossley, 2000;Tamashausky, 1998). Due to these excellent properties, graphite affords a variety of high-tech applications, such as electrical and electronic goods, lithiumion batteries, fuel cells, graphene and its derivations, national defense, and aerospace, making it an indispensable strategic resource and led to a rapid-growing demand for the production of high-grade graphite nowadays (Gao et al., 2022;Jara et al., 2019). Natural graphite is usually found in three types: flake, crystalline vein, and amorphous (Jara et al., 2020;Qiu et al., 2022b). ...
... China is the largest exporter of crystalline graphite and graphite products globally (Jara et al., 2019;Li et al., 2019), and more than 50% of flaky graphite reserves in China are deposited in the northeast regions, such as Luobei and Jixi. One striking feature in these high-latitude areas is the occurrence of freeze-thaw (F-T) weathering caused by diurnal and seasonal temperature changes. ...
Freeze-thaw (F-T) weathering can alter the geometry of soils and rocks, imposing severe damage to the Earth's surface. However, it has the potential to favor the beneficiation of mineral resources. In this study, we simulated F-T weathering cycles on the graphite ore from Luobei, a seasonally frozen region in China. The deterioration of the graphite ore caused by F-T weathering was characterized by various means, including the P-wave velocity test, uniaxial compression test, optical microscope, and micro X-ray CT. The results showed that the emergence and propagation of surface defects and cracks in the graphite samples under F-T weathering resulted in weakened mechanical properties of the samples. Moreover, comminution and flotation tests indicated that F-T weathering also amplified the selective liberation between graphite and gangue minerals during crushing and grinding, which contributed to improved separation efficiency and flotation recovery of graphite with significantly reduced chemical usage and energy input. Our study offers a promising strategy for improved and more cost-efficient beneficiation of graphite ores in cold regions where natural F-T weathering occurs.
... Natural graphite is obtained from minerals that exist in the form of graphite in nature. The carbon component of natural graphite is in a plate-like form, piled up layer by layer under high temperature and pressure for a long time [5]. Natural graphite is expensive, requires a difficult purifying procedure, and has inconsistent purity. ...
... It essentially gives the fraction of the graphitic component in the carbon material. Ramirez-Rico et al. [39] reported that the crystallinity (β) of carbon materials can be obtained using the following Equation (5). ...
The study explored the graphitization of wood through two distinct methods: a high-temperature approach at 2400 °C and a low-temperature technique at 1400 °C using a catalyst. The graphitization properties were assessed by conducting thermal experiments at various temperatures (1100 °C, 1400 °C, 1800 °C, 2000 °C, and 2400 °C), both with and without a catalyst. The development of graphite lattices was quantitatively analyzed using an array of techniques: X-ray diffractometer (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The XRD analysis highlighted temperature-dependent changes in lattice parameters (d002, La, and Lc), while Raman spectroscopy tracked alterations in the D to G peak ratio (D/G) with temperature. An increase in temperature is correlated with a rise in the number of graphene layers and the degree of graphitization. Notably, the process of graphite lattice formation varied across the experimental temperature spectrum. The use of a catalyst resulted in a reduced d002 spacing, signifying an enhanced degree of graphitization. Moreover, the catalyst promoted a consistent and smooth graphitization process throughout the heating stages. In contrast, graphitization without a catalyst occurred at higher temperatures, specifically between 1800 °C and 2000 °C, with the d002 value stabilizing around 0.338 nm. The catalyst proved instrumental in transforming the initial structure into well-ordered graphite at lower temperatures. This investigation underscores the potential and benefits of employing a catalyst to generate high-quality graphite from wood at reduced temperatures, paving the way for sustainable and economically viable applications of this material.
... Many studies have reported the potential broad application of graphite in biomedical areas due to its low cost and abundance in nature. Despite this, the high-scale production of graphene-derived materials, such as GO, from graphite is costly and laborious [183,184]. These limitations may negatively impact the utilization of graphene-derived materials for 3D bioprinting applications due to the large amount of the material and the advanced equipment that is required. ...
Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting is a fast prototyping fabrication approach that allows the development of new implants for tissue restoration. Although various materials have been utilized for this process, they lack mechanical, electrical, chemical, and biological properties. To overcome those limitations, graphene-based materials demonstrate unique mechanical and electrical properties, morphology, and impermeability, making them excellent candidates for 3D bioprinting. This review summarizes the latest developments in graphene-based materials in 3D printing and their application in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Over the years, different 3D printing approaches have utilized graphene-based materials, such as graphene, graphene oxide (GO), reduced GO (rGO), and functional GO (fGO). This process involves controlling multiple factors, such as graphene dispersion, viscosity, and post-curing, which impact the properties of the 3D-printed graphene-based constructs. To this end, those materials combined with 3D printing approaches have demonstrated prominent regeneration potential for bone, neural, cardiac, and skin tissues. Overall, graphene in 3D bioprinting may pave the way for new regenerative strategies with translational implications in orthopedics, neurology, and cardiovascular areas.
... Graphite has provided fundamental insights into Earth and planetary processes (Amari et al., 1990; and major economic benefits to society through its refractory, electrically conductive, and naturally lubricating properties (Aurbach et al., 1999;Jara et al., 2019). This has led to its exploitation in advanced technologies, such as lithium-ion batteries, fuel cells, and aerospace materials (Zhao et al., 2022). ...
... This has led to its exploitation in advanced technologies, such as lithium-ion batteries, fuel cells, and aerospace materials (Zhao et al., 2022). These novel uses of graphite, which are aimed at stimulating the green revolution, have led to a surge in demand for battery-grade graphite that is anticipated to eclipse 2018 levels by up to 500% (Jara et al., 2019;Robinson et al., 2017;Simandl et a., 2015). To meet these growing societal demands and diversify supply chains, new graphite exploration initiatives are actively being pursued in the USA and elsewhere through such programs as the U.S. Geological Survey-led Earth Mapping Resources Initiative (Earth MRI; Day, 2019). ...
The rhenium-osmium (187Re-187Os) system is a highly versatile chronometer that is regularly applied to a wide range of geological and extraterrestrial materials. In addition to providing geo- or cosmo-chronological information, the Re-Os system can also be used as a tracer of processes across a range of temporal (millennial to gigayear) and spatial scales (lower mantle to cryosphere). An increasing number of sulfide minerals are now routinely dated, which further expands the ability of this system to refine mineral exploration models as society moves toward a new, green economy with related technological needs. An expanding range of natural materials amenable to Re-Os geochronology brings additional complexities in data interpretation and the resultant translation of measured isotopic ratios to a properly contextualized age. Herein, we provide an overview of the 187Re-187Os system as applied to sedimentary rocks, sulfides, and other crustal materials and highlight further innovations on the horizon. Additionally, we outline next steps and best practices required to improve the precision of the chronometer and establish community-wide data reduction procedures, such as the decay constant, regression technique, and software packages to use. These best practices will expand the utility and viability of published results and essential metadata to ensure that such data conform to evolving standards of being findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable (FAIR).
... However, the poor multiplier capability and the consequent power deficit are considered a weakness in using graphite as an anode material for electric vehicles. [6][7][8][9] For graphite electrodes, the above performance indicators are largely determined by the graphite/ electrolyte interface chemical, and the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) on the anode surface plays a crucial role. ...
The artificial inert layer is a dense passivation film formed on the electrode, which can effectively maintain the phase stability of the electrode. Here, p-sulfonated allyl phenyl ether monomer (SAPE) was prepared and a layer of polymer coating with ionic conductivity was electropolymerized on the surface of a graphite electrode as an artificial solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) film using cyclic voltammetry. The overall electrochemical performance of lithium ion batteries can be significantly improved by using p-sulfonated polyallyl phenyl ether/graphite composites (SPAPE/NG) as cathode materials for lithium ion batteries. The large amount of sulphonic acid groups in SPAPE is beneficial to improving the lithium ion transport rate at the graphite electrode interface, and the polymer layer can effectively inhibit the adverse side reactions at the electrode/electrolyte interface. The SPAPE/NG electrode with 20 cycles of electropolymerizing shows the best electrochemical performance. After 150 cycles at a 0.2C rate, the SPAPE/NG electrode still retains a discharge specific capacity of 221.6 mAh·g-1, which is higher than that of the pure graphite electrode (155.3 mAh·g-1).
... These properties enable diverse applications of graphitic carbon, 1 including electronics, mechanical components (lubricant, metallurgical, etc.), energy storage (batteries), and energy generation (nuclear). 2 Natural graphite is the most common resource utilized in industry. However, the increasing demand and deficit of high-quality natural graphite, especially within the U.S., 3 severely impacts the supply chain. ...
... 5,7,8 These polymers were selected due to their existing hexagonal ring structure and the presence of nitrogen within the polymerizing group. The ring structure plays a crucial role in the sp 2 nitrogen creates a protective blanket to prevent incineration during the lasing process. Nevertheless, the current LIG graphitization process using a microsecond CO 2 pulsed laser induces a disordered hexagonal structure dominated by heptagonal and pentagonal irregularities 5 primarily due to a photothermal dominant conversion mechanism. ...
We report laser-assisted photochemical graphitization of polyimides (PIs) into functional magnetic nanocomposites using laser irradiation of PI in the presence of magnetite nanoparticles (MNPs). PI Kapton sheets covered with MNP were photochemically treated under ambient conditions using a picosecond pulsed laser (1064 nm) to obtain an electrically conductive material. Scanning electron microscopy of the treated material revealed a layered magnetic nanoparticle/graphite (MNP/graphite) nanocomposite structure. Four probe conductivity measurements indicated that the nanocomposite has an electrical conductivity of 1550 ± 60 S/m. Superconducting quantum interference device magnetometer-based magnetic characterization of the treated material revealed an anisotropic ferromagnetic response in the MNP/graphite nanocomposite compared to the isotropic response of MNP. Raman spectroscopy of the MNP/graphite nanocomposite revealed a fourfold improvement in graphitization, suppression in disorder, and decreased nitrogenous impurities compared to the graphitic material obtained from laser treatment of just PI sheets. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, x-ray diffraction, and energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy were used to delineate the phase transformations of MNP during the formation of MNP/graphite nanocomposite. Post-mortem characterization indicates a possible photocatalytic effect of MNP during MNP/graphite nanocomposite formation. Under laser irradiation, MNP transformed from the initial Fe3O4 phase to γ-Fe2O3 and Fe5C2 phases and acted as nucleation spots to catalyze the graphitization process of PI.
