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Schematic showing four typical types of Li metal batteries manufacturing processes. (a) Single sheet stacking; (b) Z-stacking; (c) cylindrical winding and (d) prismatic winding.
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High-energy rechargeable lithium metal batteries have been intensively revisited in recent years. Since more researchers started to use pouch cell as the platform to study the fundamentals at relevant scales, safe testing and handling of lithium metal and high-energy lithium metal batteries have become critical. Cautions and safety procedures are n...
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... the stress uniformity in jelly-roll type cells and appropriate selection of separators become critical. Figure 3 compares four typical types of Li-ion batteries manufacturing processes, including single sheet stacking, Z-stacking, cylindrical winding, and prismatic winding process. 11, 26 The most common process used by Asian battery manufacturers is prismatic winding, while European manufacturers prefer the single sheet stacking process. ...
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... 26 The most common process used by Asian battery manufacturers is prismatic winding, while European manufacturers prefer the single sheet stacking process. For single-sheet stacked cells (Figure 3a), the stacks of sheet separators and sheet electrodes are alternately stacked one on top of the other, the four edges of stacked cell without confinement increase the chances of cell shorting caused by Li deposition on the sides, whether it is Li-ion batteries or Li metal batteries. Z-stacking process ( Figure 3b) generates less stress and enhance the uniform distribution of stress in the stacked cell. ...
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... single-sheet stacked cells (Figure 3a), the stacks of sheet separators and sheet electrodes are alternately stacked one on top of the other, the four edges of stacked cell without confinement increase the chances of cell shorting caused by Li deposition on the sides, whether it is Li-ion batteries or Li metal batteries. Z-stacking process ( Figure 3b) generates less stress and enhance the uniform distribution of stress in the stacked cell. As Z-stacking process feeds the separator continuously in a z-style folding pattern while adding sheet electrodes in discrete location, only two sides (top and bottom) of stacked cell are open while the other two sides are wrapped by separators. ...
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... that when applying Z-stacking process to fabricate Li metal pouch cells, sufficient distance (or overhang) between the separator and Li metal anode (2 mm for each side in the Li metal pouch cells in this work) should be maintained to reduce the chance of internal short circuit. The jelly roll from cylindrical winding ( Figure 3c) and prismatic winding ( Figure 3d) process usually has internal stress resulted from winding tension, tab, center pin (in the case of a cylindrical cell) and winding edge, which may induce cell deformation during repeated cycling. 27,28 Separators.-While there is no commercial separator specifically designed for rechargeable lithium metal batteries, it plays an important role in enhancing the safety attributes of Li metal cells. ...
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... that when applying Z-stacking process to fabricate Li metal pouch cells, sufficient distance (or overhang) between the separator and Li metal anode (2 mm for each side in the Li metal pouch cells in this work) should be maintained to reduce the chance of internal short circuit. The jelly roll from cylindrical winding ( Figure 3c) and prismatic winding ( Figure 3d) process usually has internal stress resulted from winding tension, tab, center pin (in the case of a cylindrical cell) and winding edge, which may induce cell deformation during repeated cycling. 27,28 Separators.-While there is no commercial separator specifically designed for rechargeable lithium metal batteries, it plays an important role in enhancing the safety attributes of Li metal cells. ...
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Citations
... It should be noted that there have been recent works on the quality of the assembly process and the parts used in the preparation of conventional lithium-ion battery coin and pouch cells. [16][17][18][19][20][21][22] However, no guidelines for assembling solid-state batteries with sulfide electrolytes are reported in literature or established elsewhere. Therefore, a common ground needs to be established not only for the applied methodology but also for sample handling and preparation. ...
The replacement of conventional lithium‐ion batteries with solid‐state batteries is currently under investigation by many players both from academia and industry. Sulfide‐based electrolytes are among the materials that are regarded as most promising, especially for application in the transport sector. The performance of anode, cathode, and solid electrolyte materials of this type of solid electrolyte is typically evaluated using manually assembled cells such as Swagelok cells, EL‐CELLs, and in‐house built pressure devices. Coin cells, however, are often disregarded. Though coin cells cannot accurately predict how a material will perform in an end‐use application battery cell format, they are easy to assemble and can provide reproducible data compared to the other cell types, which make them an interesting option for testing the materials under conditions more relevant for their envisioned application. The coin cell preparation method presented in this work has been evaluated interlaboratory for reproducibility and, in addition, can be modified depending on the optimization parameters of the solid electrolyte, cathode material, bilayer comprised on cathode and solid electrolyte, lithium metal anode, and cell in general. Besides, an interlab round‐robin test (RRT) is carried out between four laboratories, measuring defined electrochemical tests of sulfide solid‐state batteries in coin cell configuration. This RRT for the preparation of coin cell solid‐state batteries with sulfide solid electrolyte, lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides cathode, and lithium metal anode is intended for academic researchers and provides guidelines of research in this field.
... It is worth noting that, for liquid cells, applying a high external pressure does not necessarily translate to better performance. Higher external pressure also increases the probability of an internal short ( Supplementary Fig. 5) proportional to the defective sites in the cell, such as those near the tabbing area 26 , especially under elevated pressures. Notably, the highest pressure used in this work, 248 kPa, is considerably lower than the range of 2 MPa to 250 MPa (290 psi to 36,259 psi) used for solid-state lithium metal batteries [27][28][29] . ...
Lithium (Li) metal battery technology, renowned for its high energy density, faces practical challenges, particularly concerning large volume change and cell swelling. Despite the profound impact of external pressure on cell performance, there is a notable gap in research regarding the interplay between external pressure and the electroplating behaviours of Li⁺ in large-format pouch cells. Here we delve into the impact of externally applied pressure on electroplating and stripping of Li in 350 Wh kg⁻¹ pouch cells. Employing a hybrid design, we monitor and quantify self-generated pressures, correlating them with observed charge–discharge processes. A two-stage cycling process is proposed, revealing controlled pouch cell swelling of less than 10%, comparable to state-of-the-art Li-ion batteries. The pressure distribution across the cell surface unveils a complex Li⁺ detour behaviour during electroplating, highlighting the need for innovative strategies to address uneven Li plating and enhance Li metal battery technology.
... Because current collectors are used to obtain an electrical connection with the battery cup after trimming and rolling of electrodes, detrimental defects are primarily associated with the edge profile. Wu at al. (2019) identified two types of hazards causing internal short circuits in Li metal batteries: 1) Physical contact between the cathode and anode due to material defects, manufacturing issues (like burrs, particles, and dust), and battery abuse conditions; 2) Contact resulting from chemical and/or electrochemical reactions. Jansen et al. (2019) linked these two factors to spatter formation. ...
... Note that for liquid cells, it is not necessarily true that the higher the external pressure the better. If the external pressure is too high, an internal short (Fig. S2) can be triggered more frequently by the defective sites in the cell, for example, near the tabbing area (20). Notably, even the highest pressure of 36 psi used in this work is considerably lower than that used for solid state lithium metal batteries which ranges from 2 MPa to 250 MPa (290 psi to 36259 psi) (21)(22)(23). ...
Externally applied pressure impacts the performance of batteries particularly in those undergoing large volume changes, such as lithium metal batteries. In particular, the Li$^+$ electroplating process in large format pouch cells occurs at a larger dimension compared to those in smaller lab-scale cells. A fundamental linkage between external pressure and large format electroplating of Li$^+$ remains missing but yet critically needed to understand the electrochemical behavior of Li$^+$ in practical batteries. Herein, this work utilizes 350 Wh/kg lithium metal pouch cell as a model system to study the electroplating of Li$^+$ ions and the impact of external pressure. The vertically applied uniaxial pressure on the batteries using liquid electrolyte profoundly affects the electroplating process of Li$^+$ which is well reflected by the self-generated pressures in the cell and can be correlated to battery cycling stability. Taking advantage of both constant gap and pressure application, all Li metal pouch cells demonstrated minimum swelling of 6-8% after 300 cycles, comparable to that of state-of-the-art Li-ion batteries. Along the horizontal directions, the pressure distributed across the surface of Li metal pouch cell reveals a unique phenomenon of Li$^+$ migration during the electroplating (charge) process driven by an uneven distribution of external pressure across the large electrode area, leading to a preferred Li plating in the center area of Li metal anode. This work addresses a longstanding question and provides new fundamental insights on large format electrochemical plating of Li which will inspire more innovations and lead to homogeneous deposition of Li to advance rechargeable lithium metal battery technology.
... [68,69] In the future, the battery packs and battery management systems, along with IG1 32 V/IG2 42 V protection fuses and circuit breakers, will be upgraded in order to withstand higher voltages and currents and achieve the maximum energy storage with the minimum weight, in order to store energy with higher energy density than currently and to mitigate overvoltages and overheating [42]. So, according to References [72][73][74], in the future, there will be electrodes in the batteries made from materials such as Kapton (facilitates attachment of electrodes with the separator), organic hydro peroxides (OHP), nanofibers, 1D/2D/3D nanofillers as polymer nanocomposites (such as ultrathin 2D graphene, carbon nanotubes, nanographene, nanosilica or nanoalumina), graphite, Ni-Al alloys, Ni-rich oxides and silicon carbon materials, because these materials offer better electrochemical performance and improved electrical conductivity. Based on Reference [75], the graphite, as an intercalation material, helps in thermal management, because it is resistant to temperature rise and overheating. ...
Over the years, an increase in the traffic of electric and hybrid electric vehicles and vehicles with hydrogen cells is being observed, while at the same time, self-driving cars are appearing as a modern trend in transportation. As the years pass, their equipment will evolve. So, considering the progress in vehicle equipment over the years, additional technological innovations and applications should be proposed in the near future. Having that in mind, an analytical review of the progress of equipment in electromobility and autonomous driving is performed in this paper. The outcomes of this review comprise hints for additional complementary technological innovations, applications, and operating constraints along with proposals for materials, suggestions and tips for the future. The aforementioned hints and tips aim to help in securing proper operation of each vehicle part and charging equipment in the future, and make driving safer in the future. Finally, this review paper concludes with a discussion and bibliographic references.
... The formation of lithium dendrites and the associated unstable solid electrolyte interface (SEI) are the most notorious ones (Fang et al. 2019;Shen et al. 2019;Wu et al. 2018). Lithium dendrites can penetrate the separator to shorten the cathode and the anode, raising severe safety concerns (Guo et al. 2017;Wu et al. 2019a). ...
It is highly desirable to develop lithium-metal batteries (LMBs), including lithium–sulfur batteries (LSBs), as the next-generation high-energy batteries. However, issues related to Li metal anodes and sulfur cathodes, such as non-uniform Li deposition and polysulfide shuttling, must be addressed. Here we report the study of bacterial cellulose (BC), modified by SiO2 nanoparticles (NPs), as a separator material for LMBs and LSBs. To achieve uniform decoration of SiO2 NPs on BC nanofibers, we oxidize and partly hydrolyze BC by introducing carboxyl groups and tetraethyl orthosilicate. Electrochemical studies confirm that the composite BC film can smoothen the Li⁺ flux, regulate the Li deposition, and curb the polysulfide shuttling due to the strong interaction of oxygen functional groups on oxidized BC and SiO2 with Li⁺ and polysulfides. As a separator used in lithium plating and stripping, the composite BC/SiO2 film offers much better stability, lower polarization voltage, and higher Coulombic efficiency than conventional separators. When applied in Li//S and Li//LiFePO4 batteries, it also demonstrates much-improved performance. Such a functionalized BC separator is very promising in LMB and LSB applications.
Graphical abstract
... In the glove box, the atmospheric parameters must be monitored regularly and kept constant. Since lithium is a highly reactive element, the recommended atmospheric parameters in an inert gas-filled glove box should be less than five ppm for H 2 O and O 2 [14,26]. (d) Cell assembly: The coin cell is to be assembled beginning with the bottom of the housing (−) with the seal facing upwards (the assembly sequence is discussed in Section 2.4 in more detail). ...
Due to the simple structure and the possibility of manual production, coin cells enable fast and, compared to larger cell formats, an inexpensive examination option in battery research. The comparability and traceability of coin cell structures in literature are only feasible to a limited extent due to the lack of a standard in manual production. Since the findings from the literature are barely building up on each other and have not been repeated, a full factorial Design of Experiments (DoE) was performed to investigate the significance of earlier findings in terms of their influence on the reproducibility of the performance. The parameters studied were the anode-to-cathode ratio, the amount of electrolyte, the spring type and the separator count. To quantify the reproducibility of coin cell assembly, the number of functional cells (here: successful formation followed by 30 cycles) and the empirical coefficient of variation for the performance parameters discharge capacity, internal resistance and coulombic efficiency were compared. The critical parameters found in prior literature have no statistically significant influence on reproducibility when focusing on the number of functional cells. Instead, other uninvestigated parameters seem to influence the system coin cell more. By further examining the parameter settings that produced the most functional cells (≥75% of 8 cells), guidance for constructing coin cells (type R2032) was suggested, and other potential influencing parameters are discussed for further study.
... In contrast, the BYD's blade battery pack is directly composed of blade cells, and the module structure is not required. Based on this innovative no-module design, the battery safety performance of blade battery packs can be significantly improved, and the volume utilization rate of the [253]. Copyright 2019, the authors, published by IOP Publishing. ...
With increasing the market share of electric vehicles (EVs), the rechargeable lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) as the critical energy power sources have experienced rapid growth in the last decade, and the massive LIBs will be retired after the service life of EVs. To dispose of retired LIBs, the comprehensive recycling including echelon utilization and materials recovery has attracted global attention due to its maximization of recycling value. In the development of comprehensive recycling, extensive efforts have been devoted to resolving challenges associated with the pretreatment processes, such as the rapid sorting, electrolyte separation, and automatic dismantling. However, the efficiency and safety of pretreatment still need to be improved to confront the diversity and complex structures of massive retired LIBs by EVs industry. Based on this, this review will comprehensively review and analyze the current state of technologies as well as the technical challenges and perspectives of all key aspects of comprehensive recycling and the involved pretreatment, including fundamentals of state-of-the-art technologies, operating strategies of different applications, technical and environmental issues as well as future research directions to overcome these challenges.
... 20 When manufacturing LIB, spatter formation must be avoided to reduce the risk of possible short circuits during the cell operation. 21 The increased absorptivity of laser radiation in the visible wavelength range in copper materials is promising for their employment as a joining tool in LIB production mainly due to reduced spatter formation. 22 Green laser radiation, combined with a pulse modulation strategy, was successfully applied to weld 40 foils with a 300 μm-thick arrester tab. ...
Lithium-ion battery cells are used for energy storage in many industrial sectors, such as consumer electronics or electromobility. Due to the diversity of these applications, the demand for tailored battery cells is increasing. Consequently, the technical development of the cells leads to numerous coexisting cell variants. Examples of such variants are altering cell materials, formats, and capacities. Different target capacities can be realized by changing the geometrical dimensions of the individual electrodes or the number of electrodes in the cell cores. The increasing quantity of variants poses challenges within battery cell manufacturing, such as the need to adapt the process parameters for the cell-internal contacting of a higher number of electrode sheets in the cell stack. Each new cell variant currently requires elaborate experimental parameter studies for its manufacture. An approach for selecting suitable process parameters for laser-based cell-internal contacting in terms of a modification of the cell properties is presented in this paper. A model was built to determine the weld depth in copper sheets using a millisecond pulsed laser welding strategy. The process parameters for welding stacks of electrode sheets to an arrester tab were calculated on the basis of this model. The necessary weld depth in the arrester tab for achieving suitable mechanical properties of the cell-internal joint was considered. The presented approach was validated by welding different numbers of foils to an arrester tab and varying the thickness of the foils. It was shown that the experimental effort for the selection of the process parameters for laser-based contacting can be reduced significantly.
... Particles need to be prevented in LIB production to avoid subsequent short circuits in the cells [7]. Due to the high processing speeds and the flexible beam guidance, laser beam sources are promising tools for a highly productive battery production [8]. ...
Cost reduction is a major aim for innovations in lithium-ion battery production. A promising approach to meet the high economic requirements is using high-speed manufacturing technologies like laser beam welding. This process can be applied to electrically connect the pre-stacked electrode sheets at the uncoated part of the current collectors. However, laser beam welding of the aluminum current collector foils is particularly challenging due to emerging seam defects such as cracks.
In order to eliminate cracks occurring between the seam and the base material, this paper presents investigations on joining aluminum foil stacks using a nanosecond pulsed laser. Forty aluminum foils were welded with an arrester tab in a lap joint. This work examined the influence of several process parameters on the seam characteristics. A detachment of the seam from the foils was prevented, and promising results regarding the mechanical and electrical seam properties were achieved.
