Figure 4 - uploaded by Marjan Mashkour
Content may be subject to copyright.
Present-day pastoralism in the Halil Rud Basin: a and b) Sheep and goat herds along the Halil Rud and next to Konar Sandal; c and d) Taurin cattle milking calf sheltered in traditional stall made with "tudj" (Salvadora persica), a legendary tree in Konar Sandal (photo M. Mashkour).
Source publication
Recent archaeological discoveries in the Halil Rud valley in the Kerman province of southeastern Iran have shown the existence of an important urban centre during the Early Bronze Age (third millennium BC), with a rich artistic and craft tradition as well as long-distance contacts with both Mesopotamia and the Indus valley. Bioarchaeological studie...
Context in source publication
Context 1
... hot climate of the Jiroft plain, with summer temperatures sometimes reaching above 50°C is also the reason for the presence of a thermophilous, subtro- pical flora belonging to the Nubo-Sindian phytogeo- graphical domain and similar to the one found along the coasts of the Arabian Peninsula ( White and Léonard 1991). The main vegetation types consist of xeric and open to very open wood and shrublands where thorny species such as Prosopis koelziana Burkart, Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd., Acacia and Lycium depressum stocks predominate (Fig. 3). In Persian, the warm, subtropical lowlands are referred to as the garmsir (literally "warm domain"). The con- ditions that prevail in the plain are appropriate for the cultivation of date palms as well as other fruit trees such as lemon and orange. Besides a well-developed agricultural production the raising of livestock in the present-day Jiroft plain include sheep, goats, cattle (taurine, zebu and hybrids), camels and horses ( Fig. ...
Similar publications
Recent archaeological discoveries in the Halil Rud valley in the Kerman province of southeastern Iran have shown the existence of an important urban centre during the Early Bronze Age (third millennium BC), with a rich artistic and craft tradition as well as long-distance contacts with both Mesopotamia and the Indus valley. Bioarchaeological studie...
Citations
... All of them were allocated together in clusters 7, 12, and 13 of the multivariate analysis ( Figure 3). Archeological seeds with similar features were found in Bronze Age levels of Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran (but see below) [71] and in Late Bronze levels of Tall al-'Umayri, Jordan [72]. Finally, from the Petra Garden and Pool Complex in Jordan, a Hellenistic/Roman pleasure garden [73], and in medieval Tashbulak, on the Silk Road [74]. ...
... With a similar pattern of likely relationships but with lower domestication index values (DI = 0.17-0.33), seeds of the wild type were identified from Tuzusai, Central Asian mountains, Kazakhstan (410-150 BC) [75], in the Euphrates zone of Urartian levels in Yoncatepe (Van), eastern Turkey, mixed with other Vitaceae seed types [76], and in Bronze Age levels (2480-2290 calibrated BC) of Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran [71] Archeological seeds with similar features were found in Bronze Age levels of Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran (but see below) [71] and in Late Bronze levels of Tall al-'Umayri, Jordan [72]. Finally, from the Petra Garden and Pool Complex in Jordan, a Hellenistic/Roman pleasure garden [73], and in medieval Tashbulak, on the Silk Road [74]. ...
... With a similar pattern of likely relationships but with lower domestication index values (DI = 0.17-0.33), seeds of the wild type were identified from Tuzusai, Central Asian mountains, Kazakhstan (410-150 BC) [75], in the Euphrates zone of Urartian levels in Yoncatepe (Van), eastern Turkey, mixed with other Vitaceae seed types [76], and in Bronze Age levels (2480-2290 calibrated BC) of Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran [71] Archeological seeds with similar features were found in Bronze Age levels of Konar Sandal, Halil Rud basin, southeastern Iran (but see below) [71] and in Late Bronze levels of Tall al-'Umayri, Jordan [72]. Finally, from the Petra Garden and Pool Complex in Jordan, a Hellenistic/Roman pleasure garden [73], and in medieval Tashbulak, on the Silk Road [74]. ...
The origins of the main cultivar groups of Vitis vinifera, their relationships with wild grapevine populations, and the use of other Vitaceae are relevant issues for the improvement and conservation of Vitis diversity. Morphometric studies, domestication indices, multivariate analyses, and Bayesian hypothesis testing have been used. Eight different seed types have been identified in the 24 samples analyzed from materials from the Upper Euphrates sites of Tell Khâmis and Tell Qara Quzaq (Early Bronze Age to Hellenistic), ranging from highly domesticated to purely wild. We have been able to establish the predominance among the domesticated of Proles orientalis Negrul (three samples, Domestication Index = 1), the existence of and extinct Proles euphratica (six samples, Domestication Index = 0.67–0.83) and numerous intermediates and hybrids (eight samples). We have determined the continued presence throughout the period studied of wild grapevines related to Vitis sylvestris C.C.Gmelin and V. caucasica Vavilov (5 samples, with Domestication Indices = 0.17–0.5). The existence of Ampelopsis seeds was established for three samples. We determined that the oldest Vitaceae seed linked to human presence, in the Acheulense (780 myr), also belongs to Ampelopsis. Finally, “stenosperms” appear associated with Ampelopsis seeds (three samples), suggesting anomalies in seed formation due to intergeneric cross-pollination. Moreover, if isolated, they suggest the presence of “stenospermocarpic” Vitis vinifera raisins of the Sultanina type. Finally, we must reflect on the role that Ampelopsis species may have played and their possible cultivation and domestication almost 4000 years ago.
... Iran was at the center of significant political and economic developments from the Bronze Age to Late Antiquity (Touraj, 2012;Colburn, 2013;Mashkour et al., 2013;Djamali et al., 2016;Sharifi et al., 2015;Clarke et al., 2016;Petrie and Weeks, 2019). During the Early Bronze Age (EBA) period, expanding settlements, such as those found in the Jiroft Valley from the 3rd millennium BC (Madjidzadeh and Pittman, 2008;Mashkour et al., 2013;Gurjazkaite et al., 2018) saw people, and increasingly intensive agricultural activities, congregate around river valleys. ...
... Iran was at the center of significant political and economic developments from the Bronze Age to Late Antiquity (Touraj, 2012;Colburn, 2013;Mashkour et al., 2013;Djamali et al., 2016;Sharifi et al., 2015;Clarke et al., 2016;Petrie and Weeks, 2019). During the Early Bronze Age (EBA) period, expanding settlements, such as those found in the Jiroft Valley from the 3rd millennium BC (Madjidzadeh and Pittman, 2008;Mashkour et al., 2013;Gurjazkaite et al., 2018) saw people, and increasingly intensive agricultural activities, congregate around river valleys. A gradual transition materialized from isolated nomadic lifestyles to urban communities focused on agriculture, trade, and commerce. ...
... This trend followed the emergent Mesopotamian urban world of the 4th millennium BC and extended further east (Staubwasser and Weiss, 2006;Mancini-Lander, 2009;Petrie and Weeks, 2019). In the Jiroft Valley, significant Bronze Age occupation phases have been identified at "Konar Sandal South" (KSS), which seems to have declined ca. 4200 cal yr BP due to desertification (Madjidzadeh and Pittman, 2008;Fouache et al., 2009;Fallah et al., 2015;Gurjazkaite et al., 2018), and "Konar Sandal North" (KSN), which is dated to be around the end of the 2nd millennium BC and the beginning of the 1st millennium BC (Mashkour et al., 2013). The economy of these Bronze Age societies was based on the cultivation of cereals (barley, wheat), fruits (dates, grapes), and herding (sheep, goats, and cattle). ...
The Achaemenids and Sasanian 'Persian' Empires were significant political, economic, and social forces in the Late Iron Age and Late Antiquity Eurasia, respectively, which have left marks on the heritage of the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern world. While attention is often focused on military and political conditions when discussing the prosperity and decline of these imperial powers, their realms, which crossed a variety of environmental settings, were highly dependent on the predictability of rainfall that drove agriculture and effective provisioning. Here, we present a multi-proxy sedimentological, geochemical, and palynological record from a 2.5-m long peat deposit near the excavation site in Konar Sandal near Jiroft in southeastern Iran, covering 4000-850 cal yr BP. Around 3950 cal yr BP a wet period prevailed based on elemental ratios, stable C isotope, pollen, and diagnostic lipids. Between 3900 and 3300 cal yr BP, wet/semi-wet conditions developed with the appearance of Cerealia-type pollen. Dry and windy conditions followed (ca. 3300-2900 cal yr BP), which coincided with the Siberian anticyclones and climatic shifts developing in the Eastern Mediterranean region. Consequently, the Bronze Age settlements around Jiroft, dependent on agriculture, underwent a steady decline. A prolonged wet period followed (ca. 2900-2300 cal yr BP) with the abundance of Sparganium-type pollen and the aquatic lipid proxy (Paq). This change coincided with intensive agricultural practices and the flourishing of the powerful Median and Achaemenid empires. The shift to high Ti/Al ratios coeval with the lowest δ13COM values suggests an increase in aeolian activity and dry conditions ca. 2100-1650 cal yr BP. The Jiroft valley again experienced wet conditions between 1550 and 1300 cal yr BP, which overlapped with the economic prosperity of the middle to late Sasanian empire. The paleoenvironmental reconstruction indicates that wet periods and intensive agriculture coincide with the Persian empires' zenith, political influence, and economic affluence. Therefore, contextualized and detailed paleoenvironmental records are desirable to explore the interplay of political and climatic factors in the development and fragmentation of the ancient settlements and imperial powers in Eurasian history.
... The results of this first round of excavations at Espidej demonstrated that the inhabitants of the site during the third and second millennia BC must have possessed a high level of technology and technological knowledge while enjoying social welfare. [18][19][20] Espidej yielded significant amount of metallurgical residues and fragments, 17,21 some of which were presented as a part of this study. ...
New excavations at Espidej at the Kerman province of the Halil Basin corridor in Iran offer a unique opportunity to re‐consider the 3th millennium BC (i.e. Bronze Age) metallurgical practices related particularly to arsenical copper (Cu‐As) alloying and to explore arsenic bearing raw materials. This paper presents results of optical microscopy and environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) on a selected group of copper‐based artefacts from Espidej. Additionally, we have benefited from synchrotron light for further investigations on a dagger sample. The scientific examinations on metal corpora adds new information regarding the microchemistry and production techniques of metals of the south‐eastern cultural zone of Iran. Synchrotron micro X‐ray diffraction (SR‐μXRD) data of the sample demonstrates traces of arsenic‐bearing minerals in the corrosion products indicative of types of ores used in alloying processes. Preliminary research on copper ores indicates possible extraction of local ore deposits which were outcropped along the south east Makran orogeny zone of Iran. This area is part of hydrothermal mineralization zone consisting of arsenopyrite (FeAsS), sinnerite (Cu6As4S9), bornite (Cu5FeS4) and algodonite (Cu6As). Noticeable arsenic bearing phases within the metallic core of the sample were frequently characterised as sinnerite and algodonite.
... Also, it has been accompanied by an increase in the salinity and arrival of the aeolian sediments in the Jazmourian Wetland (Vaezi et al. 2018). This period probably coincided with the decline of Shahre-Sukhte civilization about 4.5 ka BP (Minniti and Seyed Sajjadi 2019) and the decline of the Jiroft civilization about 4.3 ka BP (Madjidzadeh and Pittman 2008;Mashkour et al. 2013). The presence of lake facies at a depth of fewer than 2 m during a time period of about 3.5 ka BP showed a good correlation with progression of the California's Mono Lake (Newton 1994) (Fig. 11). ...
Gavkhouni Playa, as lowland of the Zayandehrud River catchment area, is located in an inter-mountain basin in Central Iran. A total of 16 sedimentary cores were taken from the inner and outer parts of the basin, and surrounding areas to investigate depositional systems of the Gavkhouni Playa during the late Quaternary. Sedimentary facies were identified based on sedimentary texture, type of evaporite minerals, presence of organic materials, color changes, and other microscopic characteristics, and sampling was performed based on changes in types of sediment and sedimentary facies. A total of 80 sediment samples were selected for granulation analysis by two methods of wet sieving for coarse-grained particles and Laser Particle Sizer Analysette for smaller than sand (silt and clay) particles. Sedimentology parameters were measured by the Sedilizer software, and the results were statistically analyzed by the SPSS software. The major types of sediments in the Gavkhouni Playa sub-surface, mud and sedimentary environments included aeolian, fluvial, deltaic, lacustrine, and playa environments. According to 14C-AMS isotope dating analysis, the sedimentation rate for 40 ka period, is about 0.4 and 0.25 mm in western and eastern parts per year, respectively. Paleogeography of the Gavkhouni Playa and its extent have been reconstructed for the last 40 ka BP. The results showed that the Gavkhouni Basin extended to the western part of sand dunes during the late Pleistocene. During the early-middle Holocene, coastline regression and the Zayandehrud Delta progression toward the playa occurred in the northern part of the area. During this time, aeolian sands spread to the Gavkhouni Playa. In the Late Holocene, arid conditions caused a decrease in water level and coastline regression along with the domination of the playa environment in the Gavkhouni margin. But, there were still ephemeral lake conditions in the center of the Playa. Gavkhouni Playa experienced an increase in the level and progression of the coastline towards land about 3000 years ago. The presence of arid conditions about 1000 years ago (cal. BP) changed the Gavkhouni lands into a playa environment, and this situation was dominant in the area almost to the present day.
... There is a paucity of sedimentary archives documenting palaeoenvironmental changes at archeological sites in southeastern Iran. One particular site, the Jazmurian playa, a mostly dry ephemeral lake located ca. 100 km to the south of the Bronze Age excavation sites in Jiroft, provides potential access to these missing sedimentary archives in southeastern Iran (Gurjazkaite et al., 2018;Mashkour et al., 2013;Madjidzadeh and Pittman, 2008). However, paleoclimatic work in playas has proven to be a challenge because of the low carbon (C) content, poor preservation potential, and difficulty in establishing the chronology of these sediments (González-Sampériz et al., 2008;Sinha et al., 2006). ...
... For example, increasing OM content, C/N ratio, and n-alkanes in this interval suggests different OM sources and less aerial oxidation. High aeolian inputs and a rise in salinity at ca. 4.3 cal kyr BP, suggests more arid conditions that coincided with Jiroft's decline (Mashkour et al., 2013;Madjidzadeh and Pittman, 2008). Detailed pollen and geochemical records from a peat deposits, retrieved from Konar Sandal near the archeological mounds in Jiroft (Gurjazkaite et al., 2018), indicate that during the more arid periods, communities retreated and abandoned agriculture, facilitating successional processes. ...
We present a multi-proxy record from a 5-m long sediment core from the Jazmurian playa in southeastern Iran to provide insights into globally-recognized major climatic events since the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). In particular, we examined how variability in the Indian Ocean Summer Monsoon (IOSM) and Mid-Latitude Westerlies (MLW) contribute to distinct environmental changes in this arid to hyper-arid region in the interior of West Asia. While interior West Asia showed cold windy conditions during the LGM and post-LGM, southeast Iran experienced quiescent conditions similar to south Asia. The presence of fine-grained sediments, low magnetic susceptibility, and a decrease in aeolian inputs from ca. 21 to 14 cal kyr BP, suggests that effects of both wind and precipitation were minimal during these quiescent conditions. Increased fluvial inputs, coupled with a low abundance of evaporite minerals in Jazmurian sediments, indicated a greater influence of the IOSM between 14 and 13.2 cal kyr BP. In contrast, the Jazmurian playa was dry and dusty between 13.2 and 11.4 cal kyr BP, as reflected by an increase in aeolian sands, and the presence of evaporite minerals. This was followed by a period of strong IOSM activity during the early Holocene, coinciding with higher fluvial input ca. 11.4 cal kyr BP. The early Holocene in southeast Iran was wetter than other analogs in south Asia because of inputs from both IOSM and MWL. Several intense dry periods with sharp increases in aeolian inputs occurred after the early Holocene, due to the southward migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone. Precipitation sources changed from a monsoon-dominated regime to one influenced mainly by the MLW during the late-Holocene. These results show that palaeoenvironmental changes in the Jazmurian playa, located at the border of IOSM and MLW zones, were primarily governed by global and regional paleoclimatic changes.
... Archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological analyses from archaeological sites in the Jiroft region ( Mashkour et al. 2013) indicate a subsistence focus on the alluvial plains for cereal and fruit production (wheat, barley, dates, grapes), and the husbandry of domesticated animals, particularly goats. These activities were supplemented by the hunting and gathering of local plant and animal species from an environment that was probably wetter and more oristically dense and diverse than at present. ...
... Multiple expeditions by French archeologists including those in KS between 2001 and 2006 established that the Jiroft culture must have been a socio-economically advanced agrarian society with extended trade links with other cultural centers during the 3rd millennium BCE. Agricultural activities in the community included growing cereals (wheat, barley), fruits (dates and grapes), and domestication of animals (bovines, goats, sheep and horses) that are well-preserved in the archaeological surveys conducted by Mashkour et al. (2013). The notable discoveries of Jiroft-style steatite vessels in Sumerian cities (Steinkeller, 1982) and a seal with Indus style iconographic components found in KS (Vidale and Frenez, 2015), validates the importance of this settlement as an EBA trade center. ...
... The harsh environmental conditions combined with complex phytogeographic settings imply that data from paleoenvironmental studies are important to understand the cultural dynamics and its advancement in southeastern Iran home to many EBA settlements. To date the key investigations in KS have focused on archaeological findings (Madjidzadeh and Pittman, 2008), bioarchaeological surveys (Mashkour et al., 2013) and geomorphology (Fouache et al., 2005). However, lack of multi-proxy high-resolution paleoenvironmental data from the region hampers our understanding of the role of environment on ephemeral communities and their societal interactions. ...
... Due to variable input of freshwater at the source, the hydrological regime of the Halil Rud is characterized by intermittent flows, displaying high inter-annual variability that may manifest itself through flooding events (Fouache et al., 2005). Construction of dams in the upper parts of the river has resulted in irregular flow on the downstream side (Mashkour et al., 2013), particularly into Lake Jazmurian, which currently remains dry during most times of the year. ...
... Moreover, charcoal fragments of Olea sp. retrieved in several contexts of Konar Sandal (Jiroft, Kerman province), from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age, were interpreted as representing cultivated trees (Mashkour et al., 2013), or as O. europaea subsp. cuspidata, the latter still growing in the south-eastern part of Iran . ...
• Background and Aims Olive is considered a native plant of the eastern side of the Mediterranean basin, from where it should have spread westward along the Mediterranean shores, while little is known about its diffusion in the eastern direction.
• Methods A wide set of olive ecotypes and varieties collected from several provinces of Iran, representing a high percentage of the entire olive resources present in the area, was screened with 49 chloroplast and ten nuclear SSR markers, and coupled with archaeo-botanical and historical data on Mediterranean olive varieties. Approximate Bayesian Computation was applied to define the demographic history of olives including Iranian germplasm, and species distribution modeling was performed in order to understand the impact of the Late Quaternary Period on olive distribution.
• Key Results The results of the present study demonstrated that: i) the climatic conditions of the last glacial maximum had an important role on the actual olive distribution, ii) all Iranian olive samples had the same maternal inheritance as Mediterranean cultivars, iii) the nuclear gene flow from Mediterranean basin to the Iranian plateau was almost absent, as well as the contribution of subspecies cuspidata to the Iranian olives diversity.
• Conclusions Based on these evidences, a new scenario on the origin and distribution of this important fruit crop has been traced. The evaluation of olive trees growing in the eastern part of the Levant highlighted a new perspective on the olive spreading and distribution, suggesting two routes of olive differentiation, one westward, spreading along the Mediterranean basin, and another moving towards the east and reaching the Iranian plateau before its domestication.
This article describes and analyzes the archaeological findings at the Abpa site, situated in the Farashband plains, approximately 172 kilometers west of Shiraz. Notably, the site yielded 120 fragmented equine figurines. A distinct feature of these artifacts is the breakages and cracks concentrated in the head and external organs, which seem intentional. Upon careful analysis of the gathered evidence, a discernible behavioral pattern emerges. This pattern implies a structured ritual or ceremony characterized by the intentional breaking and subsequent burial of clay figurines. Considering the proximity of the site to the town of Farashband, located on a major transportation route connecting Firuzabad and Bushehr port, and the historical attribution of the town's construction to Bahram V, the Sassanid king, this article delves into the archaeological evidence. The interpretation of this evidence extends to the birth and dissemination of the Sassanid ideology and its pertinent discourse, drawing upon the Avesta to indicate possible theological dimensions of the putative rituals related to Abpa archeological deposit.
