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Over the last two decades, hardware security has gained increasing attention in academia and industry. Flash memory has been given a spotlight in recent years, with the question of whether or not it can prove useful in a security role. Because of inherent process variation in the characteristics of flash memory modules, they can provide a unique fi...
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Abstract—BCH codes are being widely used in commercial
NAND flash controllers, and the decoding algorithm based on
the Berlekamp-Massey (BM) algorithm is a classic solution
for solving the key equation used for error correction. The
latency of BM decoding is the bottleneck of the Bose-Chaudhuri-
Hocquenghem (BCH) decoder when correcting a high numb...
We studied the heavy-ion single event effect response of 3D NAND Flash memory cells with charge-trap based replacement gate technology. Error cross sections, threshold voltage shifts, and underlying mechanisms are discussed. The behavior of replacement gate cells is compared with previous generations of Flash NAND memory cells with floating gate ar...
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... The riding assessment is completed with the motor's power that we are using is 250 watts. [15] Therefore, backup time is 20 min (approx.). The speed without load is 32 km/hr. ...
There are so many vehicles that came to influence the existing world, and we all know that automobile vehicles consume fuel for running. And their control system is based on the usual fossil fuel system. Nowadays, the demand for fuel and the cost of fuel is increasing. At the same time, fossil fuel can exceed only for a certain period. After that, we have to go for alternate methods. Therefore, we need other energy resources for transportation, so we are going for different types of energy like electrical energy and solar energy, which will be very useful to the world's future needs. The motor and the other assorted parts include sprocket, chain assembly, cycle, and the other easily available materials to serve and fulfill the project's purpose. It may be noted that solar energy is easily available free of cost, and the battery used is a rechargeable battery. In this project, the battery and solar panel are used to get electric power. The energy management may be predicted by using Machine Learning algorithms. The training models of the system can predict the actual of energy to run the vehicle. So, finally, it can give the system about the power consumption to run the vehicle. The electrical power from the battery and solar panel is used to operate the brushless DC motor with the help of a controller. In this arrangement, the wheel rotation is obtained by the front side of the brushless DC motor. Therefore, operating the cycle is very easy, and no workforce is required to drive the cycle. The operating system of the normal cycle is not altered. This system is a two-in-one system. In case of the battery is low, we dopedal manually. To avoid this, we can predict the energy consumption by training models in Machine Learning Algorithms. The system can predict the km to travel by using the stored power in the battery by using machine learning training models.
... PUFs implemented on NAND Flash memories using reading disturbances have been shown to provide responses of lower entropy, as they do not create as many disturbances as Flash-memory-based PUFs implemented on NAND Flash memories using programming disturbances do, for the same period of time required in order to produce the relevant responses. In general, it has also been noted that NAND Flash memories are cheaper than NOR Flash memories, with NAND Flash memories being used for data storage, and NOR ones for code storage and execution [160]. ...
In this work, we examine whether Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) can act as lightweight security mechanisms for practical applications in the context of the Internet of Things (IoT). In order to do so, we first discuss what PUFs are, and note that memory-based PUFs seem to fit the best to the framework of the IoT. Then, we consider a number of relevant memory-based PUF designs and their properties, and evaluate their ability to provide security in nominal and adverse conditions. Finally, we present and assess a number of practical PUF-based security protocols for IoT devices and networks, in order to confirm that memory-based PUFs can indeed constitute adequate security mechanisms for the IoT, in a practical and lightweight fashion.
More specifically, we first consider what may constitute a PUF, and we redefine PUFs as inanimate physical objects whose characteristics can be exploited in order to obtain a behaviour similar to a highly distinguishable (i.e., “(quite) unique”) mathematical function. We note that PUFs share many characteristics with biometrics, with the main difference being that PUFs are based on the characteristics of inanimate objects, while biometrics are based on the characteristics of humans and other living creatures. We also note that it cannot really be proven that PUFs are unique per instance, but they should be considered to be so, insofar as (human) biometrics are also considered to be unique per instance.
We, then, proceed to discuss the role of PUFs as security mechanisms for the IoT, and we determine that memory-based PUFs are particularly suited for this function. We observe that the IoT nowadays consists of heterogeneous devices connected over diverse networks, which include both high-end and resource-constrained devices. Therefore, it is essential that a security solution for the IoT is not only effective, but also highly scalable, flexible, lightweight, and cost-efficient, in order to be considered as practical. To this end, we note that PUFs have been proposed as security mechanisms for the IoT in the related work, but the practicality of the relevant security mechanisms has not been sufficiently studied.
We, therefore, examine a number of memory-based PUFs that are implemented using Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) components, and assess their potential to serve as acceptable security mechanisms in the context of the IoT, not only in terms of effectiveness and cost, but also under both nominal and adverse conditions, such as ambient temperature and supply voltage variations, as well as in the presence of (ionising) radiation. In this way, we can determine whether memory-based PUFs are truly suitable to be used in the various application areas of the IoT, which may even involve particularly adverse environments, e.g., in IoT applications involving space modules and operations.
Finally, we also explore the potential of memory-based PUFs to serve as adequate security mechanisms for the IoT in practice, by presenting and analysing a number of cryptographic protocols based on these PUFs. In particular, we study how memory-based PUFs can be used for key generation, as well as device identification, and authentication, their role as security mechanisms for current and next-generation IoT devices and networks, and their potential for applications in the space segment of the IoT and in other adverse environments. Additionally, this work also discusses how memory-based PUFs can be utilised for the implementation of lightweight reconfigurable PUFs that allow for advanced security applications. In this way, we are able to confirm that memory-based PUFs can indeed provide flexible, scalable, and efficient security solutions for the IoT, in a practical, lightweight, and inexpensive manner.
... This fingerprint remains almost unaffected due to any temperature, humidity, or stability variations [18,19,20]. There has been research that investigates PUF from volatile memories which can be found in [21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28] and non-volatile memories in [29]. ...
Embedded systems or micro controller based modules have become increasingly prevalent in our daily lives. However, the security of embedded devices as well as the authenticity of hardware has become an increasing concern within the growing Internet of Things (IoT) space. In this paper we setup an experiment environment where SLC flash program disturbance is observed. We discovered that intra-page disturbance is easier to be produced than inter-page disturbance. We also observed that adjacent pages are paired in (2n, 2n+1) manner, and disturbance only occurs within a pair. Lastly, we found that as page number increases from 0 to 63, it becomes more difficult to observe the first bit flip within a page, and thus more difficult to achieve the disturbance stable state.
... This key is usually deployed together with a cryptographic primitive to perform identification/authentication protocols [17]. The motivation of using a memory-store for identity can be summarized as follows [18]: ...
Internet of Things (IoT) technologies have recently gained much interest from numerous indus-tries, where devices, machines, sensors, or simply things are linked with each other over open communication networks. However, such an operation environment brings new security threats and technology challenges in securing and stabilizing such large systems in the IoT world. Device identity in such an environment is an essential security requirement as a secure anchor for most applications towards clone-resistant resilient operational security. This paper analyzes different contemporary authenticated identification techniques and discusses possible future technologies for physically clone-resistant IoT units. Two categories of identification techniques to counteract cloning IoT units are discussed. The first category is inherently cloneable and includes the classical identification mechanisms based on secret and public key cryptography. Such techniques deploy mainly secret keys stored permanently somewhere in the IoT devices as classical means to make units clone-resistant. However, such techniques are inherently cloneable as the manufacturer or device personalizers can clone them by re-using the same secret key (which must be known to somebody) or reveal keys to third parties to create cloned entities. In contrast, the second, more re-silient category is inherently unclonable because it deploys unknown and hard to predict born an-alog modules such as Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) or mutated digital modules and so-called Secret Unknown Ciphers (SUCs). Both techniques are DNA-like identities and hard to pre-dict and clone even by the manufacturer itself. Born PUFs were introduced two decades ago; however, PUFs as analog functions failed to serve as practically usable unclonable electronic iden-tities due to being costly, unstable/inconsistent, and non-practical for mass application. To over-come the drawbacks of analog PUFs, SUCs techniques were introduced a decade ago. SUCs, as mutated modules, are highly consistent, being digital modules. However, as self-mutated digital modules, they offer only clone-resistant identities. Therefore, the SUC technique is proposed as a promising clone-resistant technology embedded in emerging IoT units in non-volatile self-reconfiguring devices. The main threats and expected security requirements in the emerging IoT applications are postulated. Finally, the presented techniques are analyzed, classified, and com-pared considering security, performance, and complexity given future expected IoT security fea-tures and requirements.
... Flash NAND memory has exploded in popularity for remote devices and IoT systems because of its high memory density, low cost, and ability to be programmed and erased electronically without moving parts. [6]. Programming these cells requires electrons to move from the polysilicon channel onto or off of the floating gate via electron tunneling, described in Fig. 1A. ...
... These variations are commonly caused by various disturbs caused by parasitic capacitance. By performing multiple read or program operations on sections of the flash chips, disturbs can be induced on these chips causing random fluctuations and bit flips [6]. These fluctuations depend on each cell's relative gate thickness and width which are uncontrollable and extremely hard to model. ...
Since the inception of encrypted messages thousands of years ago, mathematicians and scientists have continued to improve encryption algorithms in order to create more secure means of communication. These improvements came by means of more complex encryption algorithms that have stronger security features such as larger keys and trusted third parties. While many new processors can handle these more complex encryption algorithms, IoT devices on the edge often struggle to keep up with resource intensive encryption standards. In order to meet this demand for lightweight, secure encryption on the edge, this paper proposes a novel solution, called the High and Low (HaLo) method, that generates Physical Unclonable Function (PUF) signatures based on process variations within flash memory. These PUF signatures can be used to uniquely identify and authenticate remote sensors, and help ensure that messages being sent from remote sensors are encrypted adequately without requiring computationally expensive methods. The HaLo method consumes 20x less power than conventional authentication schemes commonly used with IoT devices, it has an average latency of only 39ms for 512 bit signature generation, and the average error rate is below 0.06%. Due to its low latency, low error rate, and high power efficiency, the HaLo method can progress the field of IoT encryption standards by accurately and efficiently authenticating remote sensors without sacrificing encryption integrity.
... In this section, we will briefly discuss the general background information involving our proposed authentication scheme. Specifically, this section covers an introduction to current wireless authentication protocol solutions, a brief understanding of process variations found in flash memory chips, and a general understanding of PUFs [16]. ...
In this paper, we propose flash-based hardware security primitives as a viable solution to meet the security challenges of the IoT and specifically telehealth markets. We have created a novel solution, called the High and Low (HaLo) method, that generates physical unclonable function (PUF) signatures based on process variations within flash memory in order to uniquely identify and authenticate remote sensors. The HaLo method consumes 60% less power than conventional authentication schemes, has an average latency of only 39ms for signature generation, and can be readily implemented through firmware on ONFI 2.2 compliant off-the-shelf NAND flash memory chips. The HaLo method generates 512 bit signatures with an average error rate of 5.9 * 10^-4, while also adapting for flash chip aging. Due to its low latency, low error rate, and high power efficiency, the HaLo method could help progress the field of remote patient monitoring by accurately and efficiently authenticating remote health sensors.
In this work, we present a Physical Unclonable Function (PUF) implemented on a Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) NAND Flash memory module using programming disturbances, and examine the robustness of its responses to environmental variations. In particular, we test a removable Flash memory module serving as a PUF, under nominal conditions, as well as under temperature and voltage variations. To determine its resilience to environmental variations, we utilise well-known PUF metrics, such as the Hamming weight and the intra-device Hamming distance. Our results prove that, in general, the tested Samsung K9F1G08U0E NAND Flash memory can be used to realise a lightweight, scalable, and flexible hardware security primitive, namely a PUF, that can be utilised in the context of smart homes, smart vehicles, and other smart applications, as well as to protect commercial devices and networks in general. However, voltage variations seem to pose a substantial threat to the adoption of this PUF in practice. This threat may be addressed by small-scale design improvements that should be implemented and tested in practice as part of future works.
