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2 Effects of climate and CO 2 concentrations on pathogen/tree interactions. Temperature and rainfall have major effects on primary inoculum levels, reproduction and dispersal of pathogen spores and infection processes. They also influence tree growth, phenology and the capacity of the tree to withstand infection. Enhanced CO 2 concentration will mainly affect the host tree, its vigour and susceptibility to combined attacks by pests and pathogens
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A changing climate could induce a myriad of changes in forests and thus in forest soil health at the global scale, as a consequence
of both direct and indirect impacts. The direct effects include increased temperature and atmospheric concentration of CO2, changes in precipitation and the frequency and severity of extreme climatic events such as hea...
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Citations
... Losses of vegetative cover coupled with increases in precipitation intensity and climate-induced reductions in soil aggregate stability will dramatically increase potential erosion rates. 3 Forest soils, especially those under native forests, differ from soils of other land use systems in terms of their infrequent (but sometimes major) disturbance, and high organic matter content which may increase the capacity to buffer the effects of climate change. Some of the effect of climate change on soils in such forests may be slow but cumulative, and would require special and sensitive parameters to detect any change in terms of soil health. ...
... This is because organic matter exerts strong controls on the physical,chemical and biological properties affecting soil "fertility". 3 Mountain soils are generally shallow and their fertility is often concentrated in the uppermost layers. Therefore, soil erosion is a key problem that affects the landscape at different scales and represents a serious challenge for land management and soil conservation. ...
Soil erosion is a problem that affects the landscape at different scales and represents a serious challenge for land management and soil conservation in both natural forests and meadows. The aim of this study was to determine how the parent material and land use affect the physical and chemical properties of the soil in the area of the Fruska gora Mountain. The soils were developed on five bedrock types: serpentinite, marl, trachyte, shale, loess and two land use types: forest and meadow. Twenty-three forest soil and 24 meadow soil from a depth of 0-20 cm were sampled from the Fruska gora Mt. Following properties were determined: pH, electrical conductivity, oxidation-reduction potential, content of organic carbon, sodium adsorption ratio, aggregate size and stability. There is no statistically significant difference in pH, Eh, EC, and SAR values between the analyzed forest and meadow soils, but there is a statistically significant difference in the content of Corg. It can be conculded that both the parent matrial, and to a slightly less extent, land use have a great influence on physico-chemical properties of the soil.
... The rise in soil C composition in forest soil is arduous to quantify but it may still be important in the context of C sequestration, and impacting emissions of other greenhouse gases such as nitrous oxide and methane. In essence, we are in a poor condition to draw consequences about what will happen to forest soil carbon sink and apparently soil health under elevated atmospheric CO 2 [145]. ...
Forest soils are a pressing subject of worldwide research owing to the several roles of forests such as carbon sinks. Currently, the living soil ecosystem has become dreadful as a consequence of several anthropogenic activities including climate change. Climate change continues to transform the living soil ecosystem as well as the soil microbiome of planet Earth. The majority of studies have aimed to decipher the role of forest soil bacteria and fungi to understand and predict the impact of climate change on soil microbiome community structure and their ecosystem in the environment. In forest soils, microorganisms live in diverse habitats with specific behavior, comprising bulk soil, rhizosphere, litter, and deadwood habitats, where their communities are influenced by biotic interactions and nutrient accessibility. Soil microbiome also drives multiple crucial steps in the nutrient biogeochemical cycles (carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulfur cycles). Soil microbes help in the nitrogen cycle through nitrogen fixation during the nitrogen cycle and maintain the concentration of nitrogen in the atmosphere. Soil microorganisms in forest soils respond to various effects of climate change, for instance, global warming, elevated level of CO2, drought, anthropogenic nitrogen deposition, increased precipitation, and flood. As the major burning issue of the globe, researchers are facing the major challenges to study soil microbiome. This review sheds light on the current scenario of knowledge about the effect of climate change on living soil ecosystems in various climate-sensitive soil ecosystems and the consequences for vegetation-soil-climate feedbacks.
... Der globale Klimawandel verursacht bereits heute eine Vielzahl von neuen Einflüssen auf die Wälder , welche sich auch in Zukunft belastend auf den Zustand der Waldböden auswirken können (Raison & Khanna, 2011). Eine Erhöhung der Temperatur und der atmosphärischen CO 2 -Konzentration, verbunden mit Veränderungen des Niederschlagsregimes, führen zu einer Zunahme extremer Klimaereignisse (Pachauri & Mayer, 2015). ...
... ). Diese klimainduzierten Eingriffe in die Waldvegetation wirken sich auf den wichtigen Streueintrag und indirekt auf viele Bodenprozesse aus. Veränderungen der Boden-und Streueigenschaften sind standortspezifisch und bestimmt durch sehr komplexe Wechselwirkungen zwischen Klima, Vegetation und Bodentyp(Raison & Khanna, 2011). Sie können innerhalb von Tagen z. ...
Auch im Ökosystem Wald ist ein erheblicher Artenschwund festzustellen. Neben der Ausweitung von Schutzgebieten bzw. der weiteren Nutzungseinstellung, um diesem entgegenzuwirken, besteht eine Alternative auch darin, in weiter wirtschaftlich genutzten Wäldern mehr natürliche Strukturen als bisher zuzulassen. Dazu zählen etwa das Belassen bzw. die Anreicherung von Totholz. Dieser Beitrag thematisiert, wie sich diese Veränderungen auf die Erholungsleistung auswirken, eine der wichtigsten kulturellen Ökosystemleistungen (ÖSL) von Wäldern. Zur Operationalisierung der Erholungswirkung
von Wäldern wurde ein Choice Experiment eingesetzt, das auf einer Befragung einer repräsentativen Bevölkerungsstichprobe in Bayern basiert. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Totholz-Menge keine Auswirkungen auf die Erholungspräferenzen der Bevölkerung hat. Allerdings hat die Totholzqualität durchaus einen Einfluss, wobei die an natürliche Strukturen erinnernden Zustände präferiert werden. Da die Befragten gleichzeitig stärkeren Artenschutz in Wäldern bevorzugen, besteht kein Widerspruch zwischen den ÖSL Habitatleistung und Erholung, was für die weitere Umsetzung von integrativen Waldnaturschutzkonzepten in der Forstpraxis spricht.
... Der globale Klimawandel verursacht bereits heute eine Vielzahl von neuen Einflüssen auf die Wälder , welche sich auch in Zukunft belastend auf den Zustand der Waldböden auswirken können (Raison & Khanna, 2011). Eine Erhöhung der Temperatur und der atmosphärischen CO 2 -Konzentration, verbunden mit Veränderungen des Niederschlagsregimes, führen zu einer Zunahme extremer Klimaereignisse (Pachauri & Mayer, 2015). ...
... ). Diese klimainduzierten Eingriffe in die Waldvegetation wirken sich auf den wichtigen Streueintrag und indirekt auf viele Bodenprozesse aus. Veränderungen der Boden-und Streueigenschaften sind standortspezifisch und bestimmt durch sehr komplexe Wechselwirkungen zwischen Klima, Vegetation und Bodentyp(Raison & Khanna, 2011). Sie können innerhalb von Tagen z. ...
... However, climate change and/or deforestation can cause dramatic changes in the quality of forest soils. Alteration of quality or quantity of soil organic matter in forest soils is one of the most important consequences of climate change (Raison and Khanna 2011). Deforestation causes change in hydrological processes, which can enhance surface runoff and soil erosion, increase the recharge of groundwater and cause the reduction of organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and exchangeable potassium, calcium, and magnesium (Pennock and van Kessel 1997). ...
Understanding tree and stand growth dynamics in the frame of climate change calls for large-scale analyses. For analysing growth patterns in mountain forests across Europe, the CLIMO consortium compiled a network of observational plots across European mountain regions. Here, we describe the design and efficacy of this network of plots in monospecific European beech and mixed-species stands of Norway spruce, European beech, and silver fir.
First, we sketch the state of the art of existing monitoring and observational approaches for assessing the growth of mountain forests. Second, we introduce the design, measurement protocols, as well as site and stand characteristics, and we stress the innovation of the newly compiled network. Third, we give an overview of the growth and yield data at stand and tree level, sketch the growth characteristics along elevation gradients, and introduce the methods of statistical evaluation. Fourth, we report additional measurements of soil, genetic resources, and climate smartness indicators and criteria, which were available for statistical evaluation and testing hypotheses. Fifth, we present the ESFONET (European Smart Forest Network) approach of data and knowledge dissemination. The discussion is focussed on the novelty and relevance of the database, its potential for monitoring, understanding and management of mountain forests toward climate smartness, and the requirements for future assessments and inventories.
In this chapter, we describe the design and efficacy of this network of plots in monospecific European beech and mixed-species stands of Norway spruce, European beech, and silver fir. We present how to acquire and evaluate data from individual trees and the whole stand to quantify and understand the growth of mountain forests in Europe under climate change. It will provide concepts, models, and practical hints for analogous trans-geographic projects that may be based on the existing and newly recorded data on forests.
... Forest soils hold a substantial portion of terrestrial carbon and any alterations in carbon cycling are significant for forest productivity and ecosystem services (James and Harrison 2016). Change in quality or quantity of soil organic matter caused by climate change is probably one of the most important factors affecting forest soils (Raison and Khanna 2011), since soil organic matter, together with nitrogen and phosphorous, is one of the principal components of soils and has a crucial role in several biological, chemical, and physical properties (James and Harrison 2016). At large scale, the variability of soil organic carbon is mostly governed by climate, while on a local scale, it depends on forest management practices, type of bedrock, soil properties, and topography (Conforti et al. 2016). ...
Mountain forests in Europe have to face recently speeding-up phenomena related to climate change, reflected not only by the increases in the mean global temperature but also by frequent extreme events, that can cause a lot of various damages threatening forest stability. The crucial task of management is to adapt forests to environmental uncertainties using various strategies that should be undertaken to enhance forest resistance and resilience, as well as to maintain forest biodiversity and provision of ecosystem services at requested levels. Forests can play an important role in the mitigation of climate change. The stand features that increase forest climate smartness could be improved by applying appropriate silvicultural measures, which are powerful tools to modify forests. The chapter provides information on the importance of selected stand features in the face of climate change and silvicultural prescriptions on stand level focusing to achieve the required level of climate smartness. The selection of silvicultural prescriptions should be also supported by the application of simulation models. The sets of the various treatments and management alternatives should be an inherent part of adaptive forest management that is a leading approach in changing environmental conditions.
... Forest operations are an important factor in soil quality [87,88] and soil quality changes can either be magnified or mitigated by management activities [84,85]. Climate change may also affect soil quality, for example, through the interaction between soil organic carbon and temperature [89][90][91][92][93]. Soil quality is also linked to indirect effects including pest and disease outbreaks, fire, vegetation growth and species composition [94]. Future changes to soil quality are likely to be location specific and occur over various timescales. ...
Purpose of Review
Natural capital is a term for the stocks of natural assets (e.g. natural resources and ecosystems) that yield flows of ecosystem services that benefit the economy and human well-being. Forestry is one of the industries with the greatest dependencies on natural capital, as well as having the potential for substantial positive or negative impacts on natural capital. These dependencies and impacts create direct risks to a forestry enterprise’s ongoing financial viability, which translate into indirect risks for investors and society. There are growing demands from a variety of stakeholders for more reliable information to assess such risks, but at present, these risks are not always well understood, assessed or communicated in a consistent and comparable way. This paper addresses this problem by applying a standardized methodology to develop the first systematic, evidence-based review and financial materiality assessment of natural capital risks for the Australian forestry sector.
Recent Findings
The vast potential scope of forestry impacts and dependencies on natural capital can be reduced to twenty key areas of relevance to Australian forestry, of which only seven to nine have been assessed as highly financially material for each of the sub-sectors of softwood plantations, hardwood plantations and native forestry. The majority of risks assessed as highly financially material are related to dependencies on natural capital. This is in part due to the fact that current regulations and certification schemes focus on managing impacts, but tend to overlook dependencies. Nearly all of the natural capital risks rated as highly material are likely to be exacerbated by climate change.
Summary
An improved understanding of natural capital risks is an important input to better decision-making by forestry enterprises, as well as their lenders and investors, forestry regulators and other relevant stakeholders. This paper contributes to the preparedness of the forestry industry and its stakeholders to address questions about vulnerability to future changes and declining trends in natural capital.
... Soil quality in forested areas is directly affected by climate and weather, including temperature, CO2 concentration, precipitation frequency and intensity, and events such as heat waves, droughts and storms. Soil quality can also be indirectly affected by other events including pest and disease outbreaks, fire, vegetation growth and species composition (Raison and Khanna 2011). For example, litter fall is an important pathway for nutrient return to the soil and changing vegetation growth can affect the type and volume of litter fall, while climatic conditions can change the decomposition rate (Krishna and Mohan 2017). ...
This report develops and applies a standardised framework for natural capital risk assessment in forestry, in order to produce the first systematic, evidence-based assessment of natural capital risks for the Australian forestry sector. By providing both a forestry-specific approach and an initial materiality assessment of the Australian forestry sector’s natural capital risks, this report aims to simplify, streamline and standardise the process of natural capital risk assessment for individual forest estates within Australia. The report identifies the main dependency risks (natural capital that forestry businesses depend on) and impact risks (natural capital that forestry businesses impact on) for the Australian forestry industry (sub-divided into softwood plantations, hardwood plantations, and native forests), and rates the materiality of these risks based on evidence from published literature and expert knowledge. Overall, the assessment found that the materiality of risks associated with natural capital dependencies were generally moderate to high. By contrast, the materiality of risks associated with impacts were mostly low to moderate, with softwood and hardwood plantations having similar profiles, slightly different to the profile for native forests. The most material risks for Australian forestry were associated with water availability, temperature, bushfire, extreme storm events, soil quality and pests and diseases (for all sub-sectors), and biodiversity (for native forests). All of these highly material risks arise from natural capital dependencies, apart from biodiversity which was an impact risk for native forests only, and bushfire and soil quality which were both a highly material dependency risk and impact risk. Climate change was identified as an underlying driver of environmental change affecting all of the most highly material dependencies, whilst also potentially exacerbating biodiversity and pests and diseases impacts. Changes in rainfall regimes, temperature regimes and associated changes in fire regimes and the distribution of pests and diseases pose a combination of direct and indirect risks for the industry. In the past, most environmental management attention within primary industries such as forestry has focused on impacts. Our analysis suggests that greater awareness of the importance of dependencies will be important to achieving more comprehensive risk management in future.
... It could also be expected that increased intensity of rainfall events will increase the severity of soil water erosion. In addition to the direct impact of shifting rainfall patterns and amounts on soil, the indirect impacts of this shift will also play a strong role, as this will influence plant growth and the availability of irrigation water, which will be a major contributor to land management decisions made by landholders (Raison and Khanna, 2011). ...
Soils naturally change through time, but anthropogenic activity has significantly altered the rate and direction of soil change. As well as further impacts of human activity on soil into the future, it is also expected that recent climatic shifts will have an important effect. There are a variety of methods of monitoring changes in soil, but a shift in focusing on change over larger areas has increased the implementation of national and regional soil monitoring networks. Despite the advantages of these networks, their time and resource consuming nature is often a constraint, which has led to the utilization of “legacy data” to detect spatiotemporal changes in soil. Although using legacy data has its challenges, it is invaluable in detecting historical shifts in soil condition. Additionally, it is also imperative to predict how climate and land use will influence how soil changes in the future through the use of temporal soil models. There have been many recent increases in the number and quality of these models, and as we strive to move away from laborious and expensive soil surveys, these models become more invaluable. This review reinforces the cruciality of soil monitoring, and suggests that we should focus on the wealth of soil legacy data available. We should place more attention on monitoring several important soil properties at various vertical depths, attempt to better understand the impact that climatic shifts will have on soil, and take full advantage of available statistical analytical methods to detect soil change. With all this in place, the accurate representation of past and future changes in soil condition is possible, providing a guide for future land use adaptation.
... Prediction is further complicated by the forecasted rapid climate shifts. It is nonetheless clear that these and other pathogens have the potential of becoming much more damaging under novel climatic conditions, not just in Mediterranean ecosystems Ganley et al. 2011;Raison and Khanna 2011;Rohr et al. 2011). Declining forest health, in turn, is likely to lead to diminishing ecosystem services, including the provision of water, carbon sequestration and clean air (Adams et al. 2011;Lamsal et al. 2011;Olofsson et al. 2011;Hicke et al. 2012). ...
Mediterranean ecosystems are hotspots of biodiversity. Because of a coincidence of high species richness and human presence,
Mediterranean biodiversity is particularly threatened by processes such as habitat degradation, fragmentation and loss, pollution,
climate change and introduction of invasive species. Invasive tree pathogens are among the problematic exotic species of California,
Chile, the Mediterranean, South Africa and Australia. In this review, we provide an update on a selection of non-native tree
pathogens currently posing a threat in Mediterranean ecosystems. The impact of exotic forest pathogens range from large-scale
tree and shrub mortality in native ecosystems (Phytophthora ramorum on the West Coast of the USA) to disruption of plantations of exotic (e.g., Seiridium cardinale on planted Monterey cypress in California, Fusarium circinatum on Monterey pine worldwide) and native trees (introduction of the North American Heterobasidion irregulare in stone pine woodland in Italy). Genetic analyses are instrumental in improving our understanding and management of these
outbreaks. There is a need for more empirical data on how novel pathosystems are likely to develop under novel climates, as
well as interdisciplinary collaborations among forest pathologists, theoretical modellers and climatologists. The magnitude
of the observed effects of some exotic tree diseases makes it important to try and minimize the risk of the inadvertent movement
of plant pathogens when planning assisted migration activities to enable plant species to cope with rapid climate change.
KeywordsBiodiversity–Forest health–Geographical genetics–Global change–Host susceptibility–Landscape epidemiology–Multiple trade-offs–Sudden Oak Death–Transmission rates–Tree fungal pathogens
