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Detection of Salmonella, L. monocytogenes and Campylobacter from chicken carcasses by cultural or PCR techniques
Source publication
The presence of the foodborne pathogens, Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes and Campylobacter spp., on 99 fresh and frozen chicken carcasses sourced from various retailers in Gauteng, South Africa, was investigated. Using culture methods, 60.6% of the carcasses were found to be contaminated with one or more pathogens, with 19.2%, 19.2% and 32....
Context in source publication
Similar publications
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Citations
... in Gauteng, South Africa [40], 20% (42/210) from poultry examined in Malaysia [41] and 38% (38/100) in Greece [42]. ...
Listeria monocytogenes is an important foodborne pathogen that incorporated into many serious infections in human especially immunocompromised individuals, pregnant women, the elderly, and newborns. The consumption of food contaminated with such bacteria is considered a source of potential risk for consumers. Therefore, a total of 250 poultry purchased in highly popular poultry stores besides 50 swabs from workers hands in the same stores, in Mansoura City had been tested for the L. monocytogenes prevalence, virulence genes, and antibiotic resistance profile illustrating the health hazards from such poultry. The L. monocytogenes were recovered from 9.6% of poultry samples while not detected from workers hand swabs. The antimicrobial susceptibility of 24 L. monocytogenes strains against 24 antibiotics of seven different classes revealed high susceptibility rates to erythromycin (79.17%), streptomycin (66.67%), gentamycin (66.67%), vancomycin (58.33%), chloramphenicol (58.33%) and cefotaxime (41.67%). The majority (79.2%) of L. monocytogenes were classified as multidrug resistant strains with high resistance to tetracyclines and β-lactams antibiotics while 16.7% of the strains were categorized as extensively resistant ones. The iap virulence-specific determination gene had been detected in all recovered L. monocytogenes isolates while 83.33 and 70.83% of the isolates harbored hylA and actA genes. In addition, the study confirmed the capability of most L. monocytogenes isolates for biofilm formation by moderate to strong production and the quantitative risk assessment illustrated the risk of developing listeriosis as the risk value exceeded 100. The current results illustrate that poultry meat can be a source of pathogenic antibiotic resistant strains that may cause infection with limited or no treatment in immunosuppressed consumers via the food chain.
... Despite the high consumption of MRPM, studies investigating its role as a source of salmonellosis in South Africa are limited. This is concerning as Salmonella species have been reported as contaminants in poultry and poultry products in South Africa [6][7][8][9]. Salmonella is a facultative, anaerobic, rod-shaped, and Gram-negative bacterium belonging to either the Salmonella bongori or Salmonella enterica species group [10]. Most Salmonella species have a broad spectrum of hosts, with a few being restricted to one specific host [11]. ...
Background and Aim
Mechanically recovered meat (MRM) products have been linked to outbreaks of human salmonellosis. However, no studies have investigated the prevalence of Salmonella species in MRM products in South Africa despite the products being imported. Therefore, this study aimed to estimate the prevalence and factors associated with Salmonella spp. contamination of mechanically recovered poultry meat (MRPM) imported into South Africa.
Materials and Methods
This study used secondary data of MRPM consignments imported through a port entry into South Africa from May 2016 to December 2017. Crude and factor-specific proportions of Salmonella positive MRPM and their 95% confidence intervals were calculated. A logistic regression model was used to assess the association among country, season, importer, year, and MRPM Salmonella status.
Results
A total of 8127 MRPM consignments were imported. Seventeen percentages (17.18%, 985/5733) of consignments tested positive for Salmonella species and only 364 isolates were serotyped. Salmonella Heidelberg (73.90%, 269/364) was the most common serotype followed by Salmonella Infantis (6.59%, 24/364), Salmonella Salamae (4.67%, 17/364), and Salmonella Schwarzengrund (3.57%, 13/364). The odds of a consignment testing positive for Salmonella spp. was higher among consignments from country-B (Odds Ratio [OR]: 3.958, p < 0.0001) compared to “All others.” The odds of testing positive for Salmonella were also higher among consignments imported in autumn (OR: 1.488, p < 0.0001) but lower among those imported in spring (OR: 0.767, p = 0.0004) and summer (OR: 0.843, p < 0.0001) when compared to the winter season. Consignments imported in 2016 compared to 2017 were 1.563 times (p < 0.0001) as likely to test positive for a Salmonella species.
Conclusion
Salmonella species were reported in MRPM consignments in this study with Salmonella Heidelberg being the most common serotype. Furthermore, some Salmonella serotypes reported in this study have been implicated in foodborne disease outbreaks. Country of origin, season, and year of importation were significantly associated with the odds of a consignment testing positive for Salmonella species.
... [14]. Poultry originated Salmonella enterica is one of the most common food contaminants, owing to their broad range distribution and is a primary cause of gastroenteritis in humans [15]. Among the Salmonella enterica, non-typhoidal Salmonella is predominantly introduced into the food products from the intestine of animals [16]. ...
Poultry products remain as one of the most popular and extensively consumed foods in the world and the introduction of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) producing antibiotic resistant bacterial species into it is an emerging challenge. The current study has been designed to analyze the distribution of antibiotic resistance among the H2S producing bacteria isolated from the fecal samples of chickens from different poultry farms. Here, twenty bacterial isolates were selected based on their ability to produce H2S on XLD agar, and the16S rDNA sequencing was carried out for their molecular identification. The results showed the isolates as belong to Salmonella spp. and Citrobacter spp. and in the antibiotic susceptibility test (AST), three of the Salmonella strains were found to be resistant to antibiotics such as tetracycline, doxycycline, nalidixic acid, and amikacin. Also, fourteen Citrobacter strains showed resistance towards azithromycin, and furthermore, eleven of them were also resistant to streptomycin. Resistance towards tetracycline was observed among five of the Citrobacter strains, and seven were resistant to doxycycline. Further molecular screening by the PCR has showed three of the Salmonella strains along with eight Citrobacter isolates to have tetA gene along with four of the Citrobacter strains to have co-harbored blaTEM gene. The results on biofilm formation have also demonstrated three Salmonella strains along with nine Citrobacter strains to have the ability to form moderate biofilm. The study thus describes the occurrence of H2S producing multidrug-resistant bacteria in poultry feces, which might contribute towards the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes to other microorganisms including human pathogens with likely risk to treat disease conditions.
... In India the prevalence in live poultry birds was 14.7% Salmonella (Murungkar et al., 2005) while the level of (Maharjan et al., 2006). A percentage of 19.2% was reported in South Africa (Nierop et al., 2005), and 12% in Turkey (Ozbey and Ertas, 2006). ...
Summary
A total of 1440 local markets chicken samples including 480 samples from (Liver, meat and gizzard) collected from 15 different regions in Najaf governorate from April to October 2012. The numbers and percentages of monophasic Salmonella typhimurium isolates in gizzard, liver and meat were 28480/(5.83%), 10/480(2.08%) and 3480/ isolates (0.62%), respectively. The typical diphasic S. typhimurium was higher when 128/480 (26.66 %), 71/480 (14.79%) and 22 /480 (4.5%) were recorded, respectively.
Results showed that the prevalence of Salmonella spp. 627(43.54%) and S. typhimurium 262(41.78%). Higher prevalence was observed in gizzard 359(74.79%) and 156(43.45%) followed by liver 203(42.29%) and 81(39.90%), while the lowest were detected in meat 65(13.54%) and (38.46%), respectively .
When the effect of season variation was investigated, results showed highest prevalence of Salmonella spp. and S. typhimurium in liver were recorded in summer season(June and August) (112(50%) and 52(46.42%) respectively), followed by autumn(September and October) (70(43.75%) and 23(32.85%), respectively), while the lowest prevalence was shown in spring(April and May) (21(21.87%) and 6(28.57%) respectively). High disruption in meat appeared in spring and autumn when reached to (14(14.58%) and 9(64.28%)) and (30(18.75%)and 15(50%), respectively), compared with the prevalence in summer season that reduced to 21(9.37%) and 1(4.76%), respectively. In gizzard, the results showed increasing prevalence of Salmonella which was 185(82.5%)in both summer and autumn, where decreased in spring to 43.75% .Also a high S. typhimurium prevalence was observed in seasons of summer (91(49.18%) and autumn 53(40.15%) while it reduced in spring to (12(28.57%).
One objective of this research was to study four genetic marker named spvA, pefA, rck and tra T for detection of virulence plasmid of S. typhimurum if one of them or more present on its plasmid. For this purpose, 32 isolates were selected from the total studied S. typhimurium isolates including; 5 Monophasic S. typhimurium- like isolates. The positive results in liver were 13/15(87%), in meat 7/9(78%) and 7/8(88%) in gizzard , S. typhimurium isolates achieved to 27/32(84%) where all (5) Monophasic S. typhimurium- like isolates did not appear any studied gene marker.
In order to select the indicator marker (antibiotic resistance) on plasmid of S. typhimurium, antibiotic sensitivity and plasmid curing by SDS was performed on same isolates which subjected for plasmid detection. All isolates appeared sensitive toward all the used antibiotic except cephalothin on the other hand, the results indicated that SDS at concentration 0.5%, 0.1%, 0.2% ,0.4% , 0.6% and 0.8% under 37 and 42Co had on effect on plasmid curing, and no growth showed at 1% and 2.5% under 37 Co and 42oc in 24 hrs, 48 hrs and 72 hrs.
The results of conjugation experiment confirmed that S. typhimurium isolates Lst1, Mst3 and Gst1 were able to transfer the spvA, pefA, rck and traT genes in E.coli transconjugant (TLst1), (TMst1) and (TGst1) respectively with Frequency 2.3× 109, 3.8×109 and 1.4×109 cfu/ recipient, respectively. The above results confirmed that virulence plasmid of S. typhimurium Lst1, Mst3 and Gst1 was transmissible
LPS extraction layer showed on SDS-PAGE electrophoresis high purity and same molecular weight in comparison to standard LPS. LPS extraction affected on laboratory mice temperature (pyrogenicity) also as standard LPS of S. typhimurium at dose 100 μg/kg with no significant differences .
Effect of typical diphasic S. typhimurium, monophasic S. Typhimurium and transconjugant E. coli in the laboratory mice temperature (pyrogenicity) showed increasing in body temperature of orally rout and intraperitoneally injection to (39.7and 39.1), (39.7and 39.5) and(39.6 and 39.4)Co, respectively. No significant difference were appeared between the three type of bacteria except with LPS extraction and E. coli HB 101 treatments (38.4 , 38.5) and (38.5, 38.1)Co, respectively.
The effect of virulence plasmid on growth rate of bacteria in laboratory mice in term of (log10 cfu g-1) of (diphasic and monophasic) S. typhimurium and transconjugant E. coli after 5 days of intraperitoneally injection raised in spleen and liver of laboratory mice to ( 8.5, 9.5), (8.8, 9.4) and (8.6, 9.8), in comparison with E. coli HB 101 (6.6,6.8) respectively, and initial density (6.3) where no differences were occur between each other. in orally rout, the (log10 cfu g-1) range decreased in spleen and liver to (6.7, 7.6), (5.4, 5,9) and (6.5, 7.5), respectively in comparison with initial density 9.4, but raised significantly over E. coli HB 101(4.5, 4.7), respectively while the (log10 cfu g-1) of monophasic S. typhimurium (that may be lack the virulence plasmid) decreased in comparison with diphasic S. typhimurium and transconjugant E. coli .
... In several countries, chickens processed and retailed at outlets of "wet markets," "informal markets," and "pluck markets" have been reported to be contaminated by many pathogens, including Campylobacter spp., Salmonella, and Escherichia coli, among others (19,37,47). In South Africa, a few bacteriological and molecular studies have reported on the prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in chickens from retail outlets and commercial processing plants (6,18,39,40,52). To date, there are no published reports on the occurrence and characteristics of Campylobacter spp. in chickens slaughtered, processed, and retailed at outlets of informal chicken markets in Gauteng province. ...
... A dominance of C. coli (15.0%) over C. jejuni (7.5%) was observed, as was previously confirmed by Van Nierop et al. (52), from fresh chickens sold by street vendors (2.0 versus 1.0%), and by Mabote et al. (30) in fresh chickens sold in supermarkets in North West province, South Africa (48.1 versus 3.9%). The reason behind the unconventional change in prevalence between these two species is not understood and may warrant more research into the microbial ecology of the poultry gut and Campylobacter spp. ...
This study determined the prevalence, characteristics, and risk factors of Campylobacter species contamination of chicken carcasses sold at informal poultry outlets in Gauteng province, South Africa. Within six townships, 151 chicken carcasses were collected from 47 outlets. Carcass swab, cloacal swab, and carcass drip samples were collected from each chicken, along with a matched questionnaire on risk factors regarding Campylobacter contamination. Sample-inoculated Bolton broth (BB) was cultured to isolate Campylobacter species by bacteriological methods. Subsequent confirmation and characterization of Campylobacter were conducted using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Isolated Campylobacter strains were evaluated for the presence of six virulence genes (ciaB, dnaj, pldA, racR, flaA, and flaB), three toxin genes (cdtA, cdtB, and cdtC), and one antimicrobial resistance gene (tetO). The overall prevalence of Campylobacter was 23.4% (106 of 453), with sample type–specific prevalence being 17.2% (26 of 151), 25.8% (39 of 151), and 27.2% (41 of 151) for the carcass swabs, cloacal swabs, and carcass drip, respectively, following bacteriological isolation and confirmation by PCR. The overall prevalence of Campylobacter species was 93.5% by PCR, which varied significantly (P = 0.000) by sample: 99.2, 98.4, and 82.8% for carcass swabs, cloacal swabs, and carcass drip, respectively, by using PCR to detect Campylobacter in BB. Important risk factors for carcass contamination by Campylobacter included the slaughter of culled breeders and spent chickens, the use of stagnant water, and poor sanitation. Virulence and toxin gene frequencies were higher in C. jejuni–positive (82.5%) than in C. coli–positive (71.4%) BB cultures, but tetracycline resistance gene (tetO) frequency was higher in C. coli (75.9%) than in C. jejuni (48.10%). The observed high frequencies in C. jejuni recovered from street-vended chickens may pose food safety and therapeutic concerns to consumers.
... It is noteworthy that many researchers found Salmonella prevalence in frozen chicken was higher than those of freshly slaughtered chicken carcasses such as (24.2% versus 16.7%) in South Africa (Van Nierop et al., 2005), (53.3% versus 37.5%) in China (Wang et al., 2013) and (33.5% versus 28.3%) in China (Zhu et al., 2014), which could pose a potential hazard to public health. Refrigerated chicken carcasses sold at retail could expose to cross-contamination during their transportation and storage, while freshly slaughtered chicken carcasses might be less likely to experience cross-contamination where they were slaughtered and eviscerated within 20 min (Sun et al., 2021). ...
Salmonella is a leading cause of foodborne illnesses worldwide. Given its importance to global public health and
little data about its prevalence in frozen chicken carcasses marketed in developing countries, this study aimed to
determine the prevalence, serotyping, and antimicrobial resistance profiles of Salmonella isolates from 200 frozen
chicken carcasses vended in Mansoura, Egypt. Salmonella species were isolated from 78 (39%) of 200 frozen
chicken carcasses examined. Of the 204 biochemically-identified Salmonella isolates, 152 were molecularly
confirmed as Salmonella through the detection of the invA marker gene by PCR. Eleven different Salmonella
serovars were identified, among which S. Typhimurium (24.3%, 37/152), S. Enteritidis (19.1%, 29/152), and S.
Kentucky (16.4%, 25/152) were the most predominant serovars. All isolates were resistant to at least one
antibiotic agent, while 2.6%, 15.8%, and 68.4% of them were classified as pan-drug resistant (PDR), extensively
drug-resistant (XDR), and multi-drug resistant (MDR), respectively. Interestingly, 94.7%, 76.3%, 63.2%, 47.4%,
39.5%, 28.9%, 28.9%, 26.3%, 15.8%, and 2.6% of isolates were resistant to oxacillin, cephalothin, cefotaxime,
nalidixic acid, sulphamethoxazole-trimethoprim, tetracycline, kanamycin, ampicillin, ciprofloxacin, and gentamicin,
respectively. Our findings revealed widespread contamination of frozen chicken carcasses examined with
MDR Salmonella serovars, which may pose a tremendous threat to public health.
... Väčšina literatúry sa zameriava na kurčacie mäso a v menšej miere aj na morčacie mäso. Porovnávacia štúdia mikrobiologickej kvality hydinového mäsa ukázala, že úroveň kontaminácie morčacieho mäsa bolo vyššia (hodnota CPM 5,4 -7,4 log KTJ.g -1 ) ako kontaminácia kurčacieho mäsa (4,5 -6,6 log KTJ.g -1 ) (Van Nierop et al., 2005). ...
The aim of the present study was to evaluate the antimicrobial effect of essential oils to the various groups of microorganisms during the storage of chicken meat. Chicken breast muscle samples were used in the experiments. The number of lactic acid bacteria (LAB), mesophilic anaerobically sporulating microorganisms (MASM), coliform bacteria (CB) and Pseudomonas spp. in chicken breast muscle samples after treatment with cinnamon and clove essential oil in combination with vacuum packaging was evaluated. Samples were analyzed at 0th, 4th, 8th, 12th, and 16th of chicken meat storage at 4° C. Another aim was to determine the species of isolated microorganisms from chicken meat samples using MALDI-TOF MS Biotyper.
... Almost all the carcasses from all locations were contaminated with these indicator organisms for potential pathogens and the results are comparable with findings elsewhere (Kitai et al., 2005;Vaidya et al., 2005;Martins et al., 2013). In previous evaluation in the formal poultry processing plant, bacteria contamination were up to 2.0 cfu per ml in carcass and up to 5.0 cfu per ml on the conveyor belt, and S. aureus was found in 24.1% of all product sampled from the processing plant (Geornaras et al., 1995;van Nierop et al., 2005). The values determined for the informal ICOs based on this study were higher than for the formal industry but were within the acceptable limits for the meat industry (DAFF, 2010). ...
... Overall, the prevalence of Salmonella among chicken carcasses was 29.1% from the informal chicken outlets in Gauteng Province, which is higher than reported previously in South Africa for commercial retail outlet chickens in North West Province (12.5%) and in Gauteng Province (19.5%) (42,57). These differences may reflect the sources and types of chickens slaughtered, as well as the sanitary practices at informal chicken versus commercial retail outlets in South Africa. ...
Salmonella has been linked to many foodborne illnesses and epidemics in both humans and animals. This cross-sectional study determined the prevalence, serovars, and factors associated with Salmonella contamination of chickens slaughtered in informal market outlets in Gauteng Province, South Africa. A total of 151 chicken carcasses were randomly collected from 47 outlets. Standard bacteriological and molecular methods were used to isolate, identify, and determine the serovar of Salmonella isolates. The prevalence of Salmonella in carcass swabs, cloacal swabs, and carcass drips was 29.1% (44 of 151), 27.2% (41 of 151), and 43.7% (66 of 151), respectively, and the differences were statistically significant (P = 0.004). Only 5 (township locations of outlet, throughput, carcass evisceration, location of carcass for sale, and outlet sanitation) of 10 factors investigated for the contamination of carcasses by Salmonella were statistically significantly (P < 0.05) associated with the isolation of Salmonella. Of the 268 isolates of Salmonella, 157 (58.6%) were typeable using a limited molecular PCR technique, and nine serovars were identified. The predominant Salmonella enterica serovars were Bovismorbificans (31.0%), Enteritidis (7.5%), and Hadar (6.7%). The five important factors found to be significantly associated with the isolation of Salmonella at these outlets offer opportunities for the reduction of Salmonella contamination. There is a need for further investigation of the probable causes of the predominant isolation of Salmonella serovar Bovismorbificans in chickens and its potential implications for human infections in South Africa. It is concluded that chickens purchased from the informal market in Gauteng Province can be a source for salmonellosis in humans if improperly cooked before consumption.
HIGHLIGHTS
... Almost all the carcasses from all locations were contaminated with these indicator organisms for potential pathogens and the results are comparable with findings elsewhere (Kitai et al., 2005;Vaidya et al., 2005;Martins et al., 2013). In previous evaluation in the formal poultry processing plant, bacteria contamination were up to 2.0 cfu per ml in carcass and up to 5.0 cfu per ml on the conveyor belt, and S. aureus was found in 24.1% of all product sampled from the processing plant (Geornaras et al., 1995;van Nierop et al., 2005). The values determined for the informal ICOs based on this study were higher than for the formal industry but were within the acceptable limits for the meat industry (DAFF, 2010). ...
Purpose
The primary objective was to determine the prevalence of indicator microorganisms [ Staphylococcus aureus , non- S. aureus staphylococci (NSAS), coliforms and aerobic bacteria] for contamination of chicken carcasses, carcass drip and rinse water from the informal chicken market in Gauteng, South Africa.
Design/methodology/approach
Chicken swabs, chicken drips and rinse waters were collected from 151 chickens from 47 random outlets. Pre-tested questionnaires were administered to capture the risk factors for bacterial contamination. Standard microbiological procedures were conducted for isolation and enumeration of target bacteria.
Findings
NSAS (64% and 41%) and S. aureus (12% and 31%) were prevalent on carcasses and in carcass drip respectively. Coliforms (62%) and aerobic bacteria (85%) were detected in rinse water. Significant risk factors for contamination of carcasses with NSAS, S. aureus and coliform organisms were: evisceration of chickens on the same location used for sale, cleaning of display counter with dirty clothes/wipes, holding of differently sourced chickens in the same cage prior to slaughter, not cleaning the display table/counter and hands at all, washing knives in rinse water, high turnover of daily slaughter and length of time to display chickens.
Research limitations/implications
The limitations of this research were the limited geographical coverage and small sample size.
Practical implications
The isolation of these indicator microorganisms suggests the potential presence of other chicken-borne pathogens not tested for in the study.
Social implications
The findings serve to inform policy on public health and street-vended food and can guide control on good sanitary practices.
Originality/value
This is the first comprehensive report on ready to eat chickens from the informal markets in Gauteng, South Africa.
