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Cape Region, vegetation community-type, The Sierra La Laguna Biosphere Reserve (SLLBR), principal cities and meteorological stations in Baja California Sur, Mexico. Own elaboration with data from National Institute of Statistic and Geography (Mexico; 2016).
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The Cape Region (CR) of Baja California Sur is located in the southernmost tip of the Baja California peninsula, Mexico. The vegetation of this region is dominated by scrubland (SRB) and tropical dry forest (TDF), but oak (OW) and oak-pine woodland (OWP) are also found in Sierra La Laguna Biosphere Reserve. These vegetation types, in this relativel...
Contexts in source publication
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... Cape Region lies at the southern tip of the arid peninsula of Baja California, Mexico (24º N, 110º W) (León-de la Luz et al., 2000; Fig. 1). The climate, according to Köppen's classification ranges from hot and dry to very hot and very dry and has an annual mean temperature from 22°C to 24°C, which varies from 22.7°C on the western slopes to 23.5°C on the eastern slopes(García, 1973; León-de la Luz et al., 2000). The rainy season is concentrated from July to January with ...
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... the slope aspect from 506 mm on the western side to 303 mm on the eastern side in the high hills. (Arriaga & Ortega-Rubio, 1988;Conanp, 2003;León-de la Luz & Breceda, 2006). Five main cities are located in the Cape Region: La Paz, San Juan de los Planes, Todos Santos, San José del Cabo, and Cabo San Lucas, and several towns surrounding the area (Fig. 1). In this region the pristine and isolated Sierra La Laguna is located; the biophysical characteristics of this mountain area justified the creation of the Sierra La Laguna Biosphere Reserve (SLLBR; Fig. 1); its delimitation is included between the parallels 23°42' and 23°20'N and the meridians 109°46' and 110°11'W ( Conanp, 2003) in ...
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... the Cape Region: La Paz, San Juan de los Planes, Todos Santos, San José del Cabo, and Cabo San Lucas, and several towns surrounding the area (Fig. 1). In this region the pristine and isolated Sierra La Laguna is located; the biophysical characteristics of this mountain area justified the creation of the Sierra La Laguna Biosphere Reserve (SLLBR; Fig. 1); its delimitation is included between the parallels 23°42' and 23°20'N and the meridians 109°46' and 110°11'W ( Conanp, 2003) in the municipalities of La Paz and Los Cabos in the extreme southern part of the state in the Cape Region where the highest elevation reaches 2,100 m asl. The Cape plant communities seem to be separated in ...
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... spatial distribution of vegetation by type was obtained from the digitised map theme Land use and Vegetation at a scale of 1:250,000 Series VI, version 3 (INEGI, 2016). This map was clipped to the study area and merged similar land cover types into one category (Fig.1). ...
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... Cape Region is characterised by the composition of its vegetation; it is located in an arid region with the tropical dry forest on the foothill of mountains and pine forest and oak-pine forest on the highlands (Fig.1). The results of this study showed that the highest NDVI values were located on highlands where radiation is intercepted by the canopy of evergreen oaks and pines of the woodland (León-de la Luz & Breceda, 2006); this result was consistent with that of the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS) based-study carried out in Baja California Sur (Salinas-Zavala et al., 2017); the results of CV were also consistent where the variation on the Cape Region was less than 20% and within the reserve less than 10% in both studies (Salinas-Zavala et al., 2017). ...
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... recorded 815 mm rainfall in 3 days when the annual mode was 400 mm and the mean was 319 mm ( Díaz et al., 2008). The historical information about the cyclone season was analysed from 2001 to 2015 where 2001, 2003, 2006 and 2014 were the years most affected by hurricanes in the Cape Region, which coincides with some of the maximum peak NDVI values (SMN, 2018; Fig. 3). Table 3 Trends and its percentage of surface area in the Cape Region, Baja California Sur, Mexico with significant pixel of Normalised Difference Vegetation Index by vegetation type during the growing season for the period 2001-2015. ...
Citations
... Recent vegetation studies have made use of spectral bands to determine vegetation indices (VIs), among other applications; this remote sensing technology allows for the classification and estimation of the health conditions of vegetation in different ecosystems, as well as in urban areas [28][29][30][31]. Among the vegetation indices used in research are the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), the enhanced vegetation index (EVI), the green-normalized difference vegetation index (GNDVI), the blue-normalized difference vegetation index (BNDVI), the red-green-blue vegetation index (RGBVI) and the green-red vegetation index (GRVI) [5,9,20,26,[32][33][34][35]. ...
... Also, the coefficient of variation (Equation (2)) of each vegetation index per crown was determined; this allows for a better comparison between indices, and it is a widely used measure in vegetation research that reflects the discrete degree of the data. The CVs were categorized into High and Low using the percentile ranges of >3rd percentile and <3rd percentile, respectively [35,47,48]. ...
... The CVs revealed that there are differences between high and low index values. The results suggest that the evaluation of chlorophyll (green color) is not consistent with low index values, which may be caused by some anthropogenic damage [35,48]. Studies on crops such as coffee (C. ...
The urban environment induces stress on trees and its impact can be identified by observing the condition of the crown. The aim of this study is to correlate the variables of crown density (Cdn), crown transparency (Ctr) and dieback (Cdie) with the following vegetation indices: the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), enhanced vegetation index (EVI), blue-normalized difference vegetation index (BNDVI), green-normalized difference vegetation index (GNDVI), green-red vegetation index (GRVI) and red-green-blue vegetation index (RGBVI) of the crowns of trees located in urban green areas, as well as chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) as an indirect indicator of the overall tree health condition. A total of 549 trees were evaluated, represented in 24 families, 36 genera and 53 species; the variables had average values of 67.96% for Cdn, 35.19% for Ctr and 1% for Cdie. Correlations were found between Fv/Fm, NDVI and BNDVI. NDVI and BNDVI correlated with variables such as Cdn and Ctr, mainly in species such as Ligustrum lucidum, Jacaranda mimosifolia and Fraxinus uhdei. Therefore, it is possible to evaluate the tree health condition of trees in urban green environments through the identification of unfavorable conditions at the crown level by using vegetation indices for some of the species studied.
... Recent vegetation studies have made use of spectral bands to determine vegetation indices (VIs), among other applications; this remote sensing technology allows classifying and estimating health condition of vegetation in different ecosystems, as well as in urban areas [28][29][30][31]. Among the vegetation indices used in research are the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), the enhanced vegetation index (EVI2), the green normalized difference vegetation index (GNDVI), the blue normalized difference vegetation index (BNDVI), the red-green-blue vegetation index (RGBVI), and the green-red vegetation index (GRVI) [5,9,20,26,[32][33][34][35]. ...
... Also, the coefficient of variation (equation 2) of each vegetation index per crown was determined, this for a better comparison between indices and because it is a widely used measure in vegetation research that reflects the discrete degree of the data. CV was categorized into High and Low using the percentiles > 3rd percentile and < 3rd percentile, respectively [35,47,48]. ...
... The CV revealed instead that there are differences between high and low values of the indices (Figure 8). The results suggest that the evaluation of chlorophyll (green color) is not uniform with low values of the indices, which may be caused by some anthropogenic damage [35,48]. Studies on crops such as coffee (Coffea arabica L.), in which various plant indices are evaluated in diseased and healthy leaves, indicate that a high CV may represent a non-uniform distribution of chlorophyll for diseased leaves and this may be due to various factors that cause the degradation of the pigment (chlorophyll), such as trauma, chemicals, infectious agents, and senescence stages, among others [28,48]. ...
The urban environment induces stress on trees and the impact can be identified by observing the condition of the crown. The aim of this study is to correlate the variables crown density (Cdn), crown transparency (Ctr) and dieback (Cdie) with the following vegetation indices: normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), enhanced vegetation index (EVI2), blue normalized difference vegetation index (BNDVI), green normalized difference vegetation index (GNDVI), green-red vegetation Index (GRVI) and red-green-blue vegetation index (RGBVI) of the tree crown located in urban green areas, as well as chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) as an indirect indicator of tree health condition. A total of 549 trees were evaluated, represented in 24 families, 36 genera and 53 species; the variables had average values of 67.96 % in Cdn, 35.19 % in Ctr and 1 % in Cdie. Correlations were found between Fv/Fm, NDVI and BNDVI. NDVI and BNDVI correlated with variables such as Cdn and Ctr, mainly in species such as Ligustrum lucidum, Jacaranda mimosifolia and Fraxinus uhdei. Therefore, it is possible to evaluate tree health condition of trees in urban green environments through the identification of unfavorable conditions at the crown level by using vegetation indices for some of the species studied.
... To reflect the inter-annual/annual vegetation volatility, the coefficient of variation (CV) of the NDVI data at each pixel for the period 2000-2022 was also calculated through Equation (3) as suggested in the literature [42,43]. ...
In this article, meteorological and agricultural droughts across the Erbil province, Iraq, were assessed using remote sensing data and satellite products. To this end, the long-term (2000–2022) Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration index (SPEI) at 1- and 3-month accumulation periods (SPEI-1 and SPEI-3) as well as the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) across Erbil were utilized. While the former was retrieved from the global SPEI data repository, the latter was derived from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) products. The spatiotemporal variations in the SPEI indices indicated that two to nine extreme drought events occurred in the province with an increasing northward pattern. An increasing trend in the long-term NDVI series was also detected, having more diversity in vegetation coverage in the northern part of the province. The relationship between the SPEI and MODIS-NDVI was found to be positive but insignificant. Thus, we concluded that short-term meteorological droughts were not the only reason for the agricultural droughts in Erbil. Furthermore, the climate characteristics related to the cumulative water balance over a previous season is not an important trigger for the spatial variation in vegetation coverage across the province.
... Considerando que los cambios en las variables físicas son un elemento natural que a su vez determina cambios en el vigor de la vegetación se determinó la precipitación anual (2014-2020) a partir de los datos reportados por el Servicio Meteorológico Nacional para la estación 9022 El Guarda (19.134444° N, 99.173056 W) Por último, con el fin de determinar la tendencia de cambio de los índices para cada tipo de cobertura, se determinó la pendiente de la recta de regresión linear (Alcaraz-Segura et al, 2008;Maldonado-Enríquez et al., 2020), a partir de los datos de NDVI y EVI mensuales. ...
... En este sentido, la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) ha enfatizado en cómo el cambio climático ha agravado la situación ambiental, así mismo, menciona otros factores como el tráfico de animales salvajes, la deforestación y el subsidio a las industrias de combustibles fósiles, entre otros factores que empeoran la crisis ambiental (Díaz, 2020). Entonces, frente a las problemáticas ambientales los diversos productos de la divulgación y comunicación de la ciencia son imprescindibles acercarlos a la sociedad en general y con ello sumar esfuerzos colaborativos entre académicos, gobiernos y la participación ciudadana, cuyo objetivo principal es resolver dichas problemáticas. ...
El bosque de agua de la zona norte de Morelos forma parte
del corredor biológico Ajusco Chichinautzin; el cual es una de
las seis Áreas Naturales Protegidas (ANP) que existen en esta
entidad. En la región se han presentado diversos problemas
ambientales que extienden el cuestionamiento sobre la
viabilidad de su conservación. A partir de la experiencia de
Huitzilac, Morelos para construir caminos de desarrollo social
basado en la sostenibilidad, el presente estudio muestra las
narrativas de diferentes actores quienes han desempeñado
un papel central en la puesta en marcha de diversos
proyectos de participación comunitaria para la conservación
del territorio; por ejemplo, el desarrollo de plantaciones
forestales comerciales, pago de servicios ambientales,
centros culturales y ecoturismo. El propósito de este trabajo
es estudiar los procesos de participación comunitaria,
sistematizar sus desafíos y oportunidades para que sus
iniciativas se visibilicen y puedan traducirse a otros espacios
sociales
... Considerando que los cambios en las variables físicas son un elemento natural que a su vez determina cambios en el vigor de la vegetación se determinó la precipitación anual (2014-2020) a partir de los datos reportados por el Servicio Meteorológico Nacional para la estación 9022 El Guarda (19.134444° N, 99.173056 W) Por último, con el fin de determinar la tendencia de cambio de los índices para cada tipo de cobertura, se determinó la pendiente de la recta de regresión linear (Alcaraz-Segura et al, 2008;Maldonado-Enríquez et al., 2020), a partir de los datos de NDVI y EVI mensuales. ...
... En este sentido, la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) ha enfatizado en cómo el cambio climático ha agravado la situación ambiental, así mismo, menciona otros factores como el tráfico de animales salvajes, la deforestación y el subsidio a las industrias de combustibles fósiles, entre otros factores que empeoran la crisis ambiental (Díaz, 2020). Entonces, frente a las problemáticas ambientales los diversos productos de la divulgación y comunicación de la ciencia son imprescindibles acercarlos a la sociedad en general y con ello sumar esfuerzos colaborativos entre académicos, gobiernos y la participación ciudadana, cuyo objetivo principal es resolver dichas problemáticas. ...
La Reserva Ecológica Comunitaria de San Miguel Topilejo (RECSMT) es un área natural protegida localizada al sur de la Ciudad de México que destaca por sus servicios ecosistémicos, en particular por su capacidad de infiltración hacia el manto acuífero del cual se abastece esta urbe. Con el fin de promover su conservación durante los últimos años se han desarrollado numerosas acciones para tal fin, sin embargo, a la fecha no se cuenta con indicadores que muestren los resultados de las mismas. Considerando la utilidad que representan los índices como el Índice de Vegetación de Diferencia Normalizada (NDVI) y el Índice de Vegetación Mejorado (EVI) para evaluar la condición de la cubierta vegetal, en este trabajo se presenta el análisis de los datos obtenidos mediante el satélite Landsat 8 entre los años 2013 y 2021 para las tres clases de cobertura natural presentes: Bosque de Oyamel, Bosque de Pino y Pastizal. Los resultados muestran que las tres coberturas tienen una variación estacional asociada con el ciclo anual de lluvias, con valores de los índices que pueden permitir diferenciarlas, particularmente entre Pino y Pastizal. A partir del análisis de tendencias se identifica que la RECSMT se encuentra en una situación de estabilidad a lo cual han contribuido las acciones de conservación realizadas por los habitantes locales, propietarios del ese territorio.
... Considerando que los cambios en las variables físicas son un elemento natural que a su vez determina cambios en el vigor de la vegetación se determinó la precipitación anual (2014-2020) a partir de los datos reportados por el Servicio Meteorológico Nacional para la estación 9022 El Guarda (19.134444° N, 99.173056 W) Por último, con el fin de determinar la tendencia de cambio de los índices para cada tipo de cobertura, se determinó la pendiente de la recta de regresión linear (Alcaraz-Segura et al, 2008;Maldonado-Enríquez et al., 2020), a partir de los datos de NDVI y EVI mensuales. ...
... En este sentido, la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) ha enfatizado en cómo el cambio climático ha agravado la situación ambiental, así mismo, menciona otros factores como el tráfico de animales salvajes, la deforestación y el subsidio a las industrias de combustibles fósiles, entre otros factores que empeoran la crisis ambiental (Díaz, 2020). Entonces, frente a las problemáticas ambientales los diversos productos de la divulgación y comunicación de la ciencia son imprescindibles acercarlos a la sociedad en general y con ello sumar esfuerzos colaborativos entre académicos, gobiernos y la participación ciudadana, cuyo objetivo principal es resolver dichas problemáticas. ...
¿De dónde viene el agua que consumimos en las grandes ciudades del centro de México?
¿Qué relación tienen los bosques con la producción natural de agua?
¿Por qué algunas poblaciones se han levantado en defensa
del agua de sus territorios?
Científicos y Sociedad en Acción por la Biodiversidad y Sustentabilidad del Bosque de Agua de la Megalópolis de México proporciona una perspectiva general sobre las situaciones y problemáticas que existen actualmente dentro de la región del Bosque de Agua, responsable de asegurar la provisión del vital líquido a más de 25 millones de personas que vivimos en las Ciudades de México, Toluca y Cuernavaca. Cada comunidad que integra esta región habita paisajes con características únicas. Aquí, de la mano de la sociedad, científicos trabajan día con día, en propuestas que contribuyen a la conservación y manejo sustentable de la biodiversidad, la cultura y el territorio.
La obra está compuesta por 41 capítulos, cuyos contenidos abordan diversas temáticas. Destacan la presentación de la Iniciativa Bosque de Agua, la importancia y caracterización ecológica, biológica, cultural y socioambiental de la región, así como el conjunto de políticas públicas ambientales que se aplican para el control y gestión del territorio, además de algunos ejemplos de proyectos autogestivos y participativos que colectivos y organizaciones han implementado en la zona. Los textos visibilizan la importancia de las contribuciones de la naturaleza, tanto biológicas como culturales, para las comunidades rurales y periurbanas que lo habitan y las ciudades que lo rodean, resaltando la identidad de las y los líderes, actrices y actores activos que participan en el aprovechamiento y cuidado de los bosques y otros ecosistemas.
Este libro también pretende compartir los estudios e investigaciones sobre las amenazas que enfrenta la región, sus comunidades y su naturaleza; haciendo necesario implementar proyectos que busquen su conservación de forma integral. Invitamos a las y los lectores a fortalecer en conjunto los lazos y la articulación entre comunidades y científicos con la intención de liberar al Bosque de Agua de los intereses extractivistas, individuales y ajenos al territorio, y a que prevalezca el bien común.
... Considerando que los cambios en las variables físicas son un elemento natural que a su vez determina cambios en el vigor de la vegetación se determinó la precipitación anual (2014-2020) a partir de los datos reportados por el Servicio Meteorológico Nacional para la estación 9022 El Guarda (19.134444° N, 99.173056 W) Por último, con el fin de determinar la tendencia de cambio de los índices para cada tipo de cobertura, se determinó la pendiente de la recta de regresión linear (Alcaraz-Segura et al, 2008;Maldonado-Enríquez et al., 2020), a partir de los datos de NDVI y EVI mensuales. ...
... En este sentido, la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) ha enfatizado en cómo el cambio climático ha agravado la situación ambiental, así mismo, menciona otros factores como el tráfico de animales salvajes, la deforestación y el subsidio a las industrias de combustibles fósiles, entre otros factores que empeoran la crisis ambiental (Díaz, 2020). Entonces, frente a las problemáticas ambientales los diversos productos de la divulgación y comunicación de la ciencia son imprescindibles acercarlos a la sociedad en general y con ello sumar esfuerzos colaborativos entre académicos, gobiernos y la participación ciudadana, cuyo objetivo principal es resolver dichas problemáticas. ...
... En particular, se ha estudiado la dinámica espacio-temporal del NDVI y sus aplicaciones. Se conocen, por ejemplo, estudios de tendencias de NDVI Landsat 5 sobre manglares del noroeste de México (Flores-Cárdenas et al., 2017); análisis de cambio en series anuales de NDVI con Landsat 4, 5 y 7 sobre la Sierra Madre Occidental en Durango (Novo-Fernández et al., 2018); análisis de cambios en el uso de suelo y cobertura en el área metropolitana de Tepic-Xalisco establecidos a través de imágenes Landsat multi-anuales (Ávalos-Jiménez et al., 2018); y estudios de la variabilidad de NDVI Landsat-7 en algunas zonas de Baja California Sur (Maldonado-Enríquez et al., 2020). ...
... Los distintos trabajos enfocados en estimar tendencias de NDVI en zonas de México (Flores-Cárdenas et al., 2017;Novo-Fernández et al., 2018;Ávalos-Jiménez et al., 2018;Maldonado-Enríquez et al., 2020), se han centrado en describir tendencias lineales globales en zonas con baja densidad de nubes. A diferencia de estos artículos, el presente trabajo se enfocó en la estimación estadística de tendencias significativas, locales y globales sobre una región en la península de Yucatán. ...
The Yucatan Peninsula (YP) is home to 32% of tropical forests of Mexico. Consequently, this area has a high cloudiness throughout the year, which represents a particular challenge for any mid- and long-term plant monitoring study based on satellite-image time series. This paper reports the results of a trend classification analysis of a time series (11 Landsat-7 ETM+ and 150 Landsat 8 OLI images) of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) by soil and vegetation types in the eastern region of Escarcega, Campeche (YP) from 2014 to 2020. We applied the bfast01 algorithm to classify pixels according to linear trends, either global (a line with a positive or negative slope through the study period) or local (two linear segments, each with a positive or negative slope). The analysis reveals that most of the study region has NDVI values with global linear trends (browning: 47%; greening: 15.39%) and, to a lesser degree, local linear trends (delayed browning: 20.66%; browning to greening: 6.04%; delayed greening: 5.26%; greening to browning: 3.88%) We consider that generalized greening (which pools the greening, delayed greening, and browning to greening classes) and generalized browning (which pools the browning, delayed browning, and greening to browning classes) can be interpreted as dynamics with significant signs of recovery and degradation of the NDVI, respectively. These dynamics were identified mainly in the semi-evergreen medium tropical forest (generalized greening: 10.26%; generalized browning: 25.43%), semi-evergreen low thorny tropical forest (7.66 and 21.76) and the secondary tree vegetation of the medium tropical forest (3.26 and 10.93). The largest areas with any kind of linear local trend were identified in 2017 and 2018.
... Climatologically, BCS is characterized as a hot, arid desert (Köppen-Geiger BWh) (Rebman and Roberts 2012); however, portions of the southern tip of the peninsula, known as the "Cape Region," are characterized as hot and semi-arid Addison 2012), whereby an onshore wind shift occurs between July and September that is associated with an increase in temperature and precipitation (Hastings and Turner 1965). Directly following the monsoonal rain season, biological energy availability increases, resulting in a September through December growing season (Maldonado-Enriquez et al. 2020). Minor rain events continue through January; however, between March and June, life becomes increasingly difficult as precipitation virtually vanishes (Salinas Zavala et al. 1990). ...
... (Köppen-Geiger BSh)(Flores-Cardenas et al. 2018;Maldonado-Enriquez et al. 2020). Both regions are subject to the North American Monsoon (Barron, Metcalfe, and Addison 2012), a climatological system that has been present for the last 7500 years (Barron, Metcalfe, and Map of Baja California Sur and the ten communities identified in the text. ...
Birth seasonality is a phenomenon whereby populations can be characterized by a single month or season in which births peak. While non-human animal research suggests that seasonal birth-pulses are related to variation in climate and local energy availability, social scientists debate the mechanisms responsible for it in humans. Here we investigate the role of precipitation, temperature, and energy availability on seasonal conception and birth pulses using a historical dataset from the Baja California peninsula-a hot, arid desert that experiences seasonal climatic fluctuations associated with the North American Monsoon. Analyses suggest that 1) local energy availability had a negative relationship with conception pulses; and 2) birth pulses had a positive relationship with local energy availability and a negative relationship with temperature. Taken together, our analyses suggest that women timed conceptions when local energy availability was lowest (challenging expectations of conception rates as simply reflecting ecological influences on female fecundity), so that children were born during the seasonal "green-up" associated with the North American Monsoon. Given our results, we speculate that birth season-ality represents a form of traditional ecological knowledge to improve neonate health and wellbeing.
... Study Site: Baja California Sur (hereafter, BCS) is one of two Mexican states that comprises the Baja California Peninsula (Krutch 1986) (Figure 1). Climatologically much of BCS is characterized as a hot, arid desert (Köppen-Geiger BWh) (Rebman & Roberts 2012); however, portions of the southern tip of the peninsula, known as the "Cape Region", is characterized as hot and semi-arid (Köppen-Geiger BSh) (Rebman & Roberts 2012;Flores-Cárdenas et al. 2018;Maldonado-Enriquez et al. 2020). Both regions are subject to the North American monsoon (Barron et al. 2012), a climatological phenomenon whereby an onshore wind shift occurs between July and September that is associated with an increase in temperature and precipitation (Hasting & Turner 1965;Diaz et al. 2001;Rebman & Roberts 2012;Barron et al. 2012). ...
... This climatological system has been estimated present for the last 7500 years (Barron et al. 2012). Directly following the monsoonal rain season, biological energy availability increases, resulting in a September through December growing season (Maldonado-Enriquez et al. 2020). Minor rain events continue through January; however, between March and June, life becomes increasingly difficult as precipitation virtually vanishes and temperatures rise (Salinas Zavala et al. 1990. ...
... Our analyses do not account for these events. During El Niño events, precipitation increases substantially increasing local energy availability, while during La Niña events they decrease (Diaz et al. 2001;Maldonado-Enriquez et al. 2020). Understanding the relationship between ENSO events, precipitation, and monthly birth pulses may shed light on additional sources of traditional ecological knowledge and methods for investigating ENSO events in the historic period. ...
