Traumatic Stress - Science topic

Maybe you could reduce traumatic stress by applying the science of “lost person behavior.” Successful search and rescue actions reduce PTS!

In a field where minutes can mean the difference between life and death, researchers have attempted to make search tactics more efficient. By analyzing reports of people who wandered off track and sorting them into behavior profiles, researchers are advancing the science of “lost person behavior.”

Health care workers, whether professional, para-professional or lay persons, are typically trained in various group and individual methods of managing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Community psychology studies show that genuinely caring neighbors can be as effective in managing and healing PTSD, assisting survivors to work through their trauma in less stressful contexts, while providing physical resources such as shelter, food, water. Trauma counselling essentially facilitates traumatized persons re-experiencing their traumas at the same level as the original emotional intensity, noting and reinforcing health anchors, and re-integrating feelings and cognitions, in resiliently adaptive ways.

This you find here on RG. Check with these researchers:

The Traumatic Stress Institute Belief Scale as a Measure of Vicarious Trauma in a National Sample of Clinical Social Workers

The I.E.S. has a long history of being used and was later replaced by the I.E.S._R which has become an acceptable measure for assessing potential P.T.S.D. it easy for participants to answer and is also very useful for exploring issues in treatment/therapy. It measures responses in the last seven days although P.T.S.D. is not usually diagnosed until 28 days after the traumatic event. What you need to decide is what is the traumatic event. As an aside as the risk of quarantine is still present is the response understandable or traumatic? The I.E.S. -R is readily available from the Internet. Good luck MJB

This is my area of research as well, we should definitely connect. I'm using biomechanical tests as they are the only thing we have any validity studies on right now and are used clinically, though there is a difference between range of motion and tension. Have you published your research yet?

Thank you

Dennis Mazur thanks for sharing. I agree that the field of immunology is complex, and I'm confident as we ask more questions and do more research, we will find more answers. Some will take longer than others.

Dear Michael Sorrentino ,

Your question is wide-ranging, but I can provide one example of trans-generational PTSD: the aftermath of slavery and colonization in the Caribbean. The Martiniquan/Algerian psychoanalyst Frantz Fanon wrote an essential book on that matter: Black Skins, White Masks. You can also have a look into the following article: "Restaging Coloniality in the Americas".

Hoping that may be of help...

Yours,

Frederic Lefrançois

Hello Nicholas, 

There might be something suggested in this paper, see if this helps you.

Google Scholar/Ebsco Host/PsychINFO/PubMed will return papers, not data. However, once you identify the papers of interest, you may want to write to the authors and ask if they can give you access to the data. Sometimes you will be able to see that the authors used secondary data. You can then try to get access to that data too. Finally, go to https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/ University of Michigan provides access to multiple datasets. Check if they have what you need. Good luck :)

 Your questions aren't clear, and to help clarify you may want to do a bit more research on subtypes of dissociation (DES doesn't do much with these). Check out http://www.healthyplace.com/abuse/dissociative-identity-disorder/dissociative-disorders-types-list/

There is a bibliography at http://stresshealthcenter.stanford.edu/research/pub_dissociation_stress.html

Integrating the field of dissociation.

doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0010457

By Barlow, M. Rose

PsycCRITIQUES, Vol 53(1), 2008, No Pagination Specified.

Reviews the book, Traumatic dissociation: Neurobiology and treatment edited by Eric Vermetten, Martin J. Dorahy, and David Spiegel (see record 2007-05420-000). A book like Traumatic Dissociation: Neurobiology and Treatment is overdue, and fortunately now its time has come. This book is an excellent collection of chapters that provide a good review of the existing literature in the field. It also provides fertile ground for new research ideas. The three well-known editors have collected a stellar lineup of the most important researchers in the field of traumatic dissociation. Chapters are mostly well written and are always intriguing. This book makes a valuable overall contribution to the literature in this area; its weaknesses are small details. On the whole, Traumatic Dissociation is also refreshingly free of the seemingly endless bickering over the causes of dissociative disorders that sometimes derails other discussions about dissociation. The preface states the main issues and controversies of the book. The first chapter, by Dorahy and van der Hart, is a good example of summarizing points that have been contentious in the past while pointing out lines of thought that will aid the growth of future thinking in this field. The book is divided into three parts: the first focusing on the challenges of conceptualizing dissociation, the second on neurobiology, and the third part on assessment and treatment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)

Dissociative disorders: Not empirically proven.

doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/003500

By Spanos, Nicholas P.

Contemporary Psychology, Vol 40(3), Mar 1995, 261-262.

Dissociative Disorders: A Clinical Review, edited by David Spiegel (see record 1993-97251-000), includes six chapters by prominent clinical investigators in the area of dissociative disorders. In the first paper, Putnam describes dissociation as a normal as well as pathological phenomenon and reviews work on several aspects of this topic. In the second paper, Kluft deals with multiple personality disorder (MPD), and in the third paper Loewenstein provides a review of psychogenic amnesia and fugues. Steinberg reviews work on depersonalization and its relationship to traumatic and near death experiences in Chapter 4, and in Chapter 5 Nemiah relates the notion of dissociation to conversion and somatization symptoms. The final chapter by Spiegel deals with dissociation and trauma and relationships between hypnosis, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and MPD. The papers differ in quality and in the extent to which the authors critically examine available empirical data. In summary, the chapters in this book provide one general point of view toward dissociation and dissociative disorders. The inclusion of alternative viewpoints and a more critical approach to some of the literature would have been preferable. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved)

Hi Tineke, there are a lot of ways to research and/or treat grieving people.  I learned in a CEU one of the most effective treatments--per former clients--was for the client to take a clay seedling pot I provided, put it into something that will hold flying pieces & use a rubber mallet to crush it.  Over the course of the therapy, they are to work on putting it back together.  As part of the process, I tell them they can also decorate it, or not which ever they prefer. 

This is a metaphor for what grief has done to them & their recovery.  Most frequently, clients have returned to say that was the most helpful thing in the therapy.  It was not originally my own idea, but the woman who taught the CEU on grief.  I can only remember her first name, Louise.  She said we can use the idea if we give her credit.  So, go for it & see if your clients find it really helpful.

If you use the idea, please, let me know what your clients think.

As always, good luck

Denise

Here's one answer: Finding your theoretical fit: A unique PlayBuzz quiz doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/e577822014-006

By Barakat, Nahed; Beaumund, Brain; DeHass, Rebecca; Fryer, Alana; Harcus, Lindsey; Johnson, Eli; Laux, Emily; Lester, RuthAnn; McDermott, Alexandra; Muchnick, Risa; Spears, Shane; Sotor, Nick; Sward, Ashley

Psychotherapy Bulletin; 2014; Vol 49(3); 29-31 [APA Division 29, Society for the Advancement of Psychotherapy].

The programmatic demands of many training programs are such that a trainee must simultaneously develop a didactic mastery of the varying theoretical orientations while also expanding their understanding of themselves as related to a particular theoretical preference. Particularly for a first year student, this is a potentially daunting task. One way of bridging this gap is to develop an informal tool which is lighthearted yet informative, and could potentially orient the student toward a clinical perspective without pigeonholing them. The authors of this study will present such a tool in the form of a "PlayBuzz" quiz, developed with the specific intent of elucidating preference for a specific theoretical orientation by assessing aspects of the individual's personality and worldview. (PsycEXTRA Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved)

If you're in clinical practice, you cannot make a diagnosis of "psychological distress." You are challenged to come up with a complete list of symptoms, which as a group may warrant a diagnosis from DSM or ICD. It's possible to have a disorder without experiencing distress. Psychopaths probably don't present with much distress, but they have a psychological disorder.  One might have considerable distress without warranting a diagnosis, as in the case of grief, which is similar to depression but wouldn't warrant a "diagnosis."  But your question is also one that reflects only a rudimentary understanding of psychopathology. I'd suggest you start reading in some reliable sources, such as a current psychopathology textbook, or consult The National Institutes of Mental Health at https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/index.shtml

look up multiple imputation (authors such as Todd Little)

Numerous stat packages have mechanisms for imputing missing data and analyzing the impact of imputing scores for the individuals (SAS, PRELIS: Lisrel, maybe SPSS). 

Multiple imputation has increasing been turned to in order to resolve the issue of missing data instead of the traditional methods e.g., listwise deletion, pairwise deletion) because traditional methods tend to produce biased results (Enders, 2010). 

Dear all,

 I like Miss Boyd's life story and the way she managed to re-invent herself.  My life story is similar but had more ups and downs.  I can detect traces of her advice in your posts too; of course in addition to other things  you have mentioned.

Performing artists are also subject to redundancy, in the form of  public withdrawing their patronage and sending the artist to oblivion.  You don't need me to tell you how the majority of them cope. However, the best example of  re-invention is Madonna. You need  both hands to count the number of times she re- surfaced again triumphant. Good for her.  

I have seen people in industry followed the path which Miss Boyd has sketched  with success. In between redundancy and   re-surfacing one must follow Hazim's  pearl of wisdom.  We would do well to keep in mind what  Lilliana and Harshvardhan  have said, before the ship sinks. The conclusion is don't try to salvage the sinking ship.

The challenge I find is sustaining specialized groups requires more population than our area has. I'm looking at starting a new group in a rural community which will have to find someway to be "all things to all people." I'll probably shift focus based on the population participating at any given time.

Ok. The answer by Joel Suss is much more helpful than mine.

Best,

Markus

As Kathrine Gill said gaiming may work as a distraction from intrusive traumatic thoughts associated with PTSD. This will reduce symptom load. PTSD consists of other symptom clusters as well, so gaiming alone will probably not reduce all the symptoms.

By "cure" I mean sustained symptom reduction at a level which does not significantly effect the patients work- or psychosocial function.

ANOVA works well for gender, marital status etc. ANOVA is a "3 or more groups" extended t-test (note t not T which is another test) which was designed for 2 group - differences. PTSD is your dependent variable and gender, marital status etc independents.  

What is your sample size and 

Thank you!!!

Hi Tanisha, Many thanks for your reply - I agree with what you say. 

Yes, Ladonna.... thanks a million & yes familiar with these debates... I know the Devilly article but not the Kagee one - will see if I can find it... Much Thanks!  Pat

The Symptoms of Trauma Scale (SOTS) is a 12 item symptom severity scale, as described by Ford et al., Journal of Psychiatric Practice, in press

I agree with all of the comments posted here. I would add and emphasize that a priori long-term and enduring vulnerabilities (as touched on by Dinesh) may set boundaries for resilience across individuals and that although related to resilience, vulnerabilities are independent factors that begin before and after birth and continue to be influenced by early negative experiences/trauma. Even later in life, comorbidities (diseases, illnesses) and dispositional variables (hostility, etc.) make it more difficult to "bounce back" in the face of stressors. Resilience needs to be considered in the context of a person's vulnerability. If a person is born with physical, economic and social hardships, she/he will  find it more difficult to be resilient e.g., when one becomes a professor at a major university and has parents who never went to school, this is reflective of much greater resilience than someone who becomes a professor, but has parents who were doctors or engineers.

Dear John,

I have some suggestions based on my clinical experience. If you work with your client to go backward drawing the time line from her birth to date and discussing important event in life(both negative and positive). You may have to explore more details as your client may just skip some time points. Also worth to explore any guilty related to pre-cancer stage especially any sibling rivalry or family issues.If it is the case this could be a motivated forgetting.

You may also ask her to bring some family photos of that time period to the session and discuss about the day, place, event who else attended, what happened before the photo was taken and after it. This will work as a memory stimulation. It is helpful to get down a family member if ethical and other concerns are not violated. This is an eclectic approach I have used.

best wishes

Kanthi

R. Leckey Harrison, I will refrain from correcting mistakes in your understanding save to state that Benson learned about TM from his graduate student, Robert Keith Wallace, who was a TM teacher, and that breathing concentration prevents transcending. There is a big difference between the PTSD results achievable with TM and the results achievable through methods of concentration and contemplation.

But we don't have to agree on all this now. Research is in progress which should show clearly the superiority of transcending as an intervention for PTSD over all other methods, mental or otherwise, as a result of TM's proven effectiveness at dissolving stress stored in the nervous system in general.

Again, since such facts are as yet little-iknown, there is no need for me to try to convince anyone now; I'm content to wait for the research to be published within the next few years.

Hi Steven,

Hope this article useful

Ferenczi, Abraham, Simmel, and Jones (1921)

studied World War I combat stress reactions and

applied Freud's then current theories about unconscious

conflict, rather than his original idea about

trauma. Bailey, Williams, and Kamora (1929)

published a definitive work on neuropsychiatry in

World War I which referred throughout to Freudian

psychology as a theoretical construct for their data.

Da Costa's work on effort syndrome became a

popular diagnosis during the war (Turnbull, 1998b).

The largest number of psychiaric cases in the

war involved neurosis, including neurasthenia or

"shell shock," which was coined by Myers (1915),

a British military psychiatrist.

Mott (1919) gave one of the best descriptions of

the major forms of war neurosis, hysteria, and

neurasthenia. He wrote that physical shock and

horrifying conditions could cause fear, which in

turn produced an intense effect on the mind.

Hysterical symptoms included paralysis, contractions,

disordered gait, tremors, and shaking.

Neurasthenia symptoms included lassitude, fatigue,

weariness, headaches, and particularly vivid and

terrifying dreams. Another symptom described by

Mott in detail for the first time was a startle reflex.

In 1926, the U.S. Army reported that no new

psychiatric syndrome was found in World War l.

Even the Russian literature (Ronchevsky, 1944)

listed no unique syndromes.

The Traumatic Neuroses of War by Kardiner,

White, and French {1941} and War Stress and

Neurotic lllness by Kardiner (1947) are seminal

psychological works on the evolution of PTSD,

Kardiner included the most extensive follow-up of

patients from World War l. He developed the

concept of "physioneurosis" which indicated bodily

involvement. Kardiner differentiated the normal

action syndrome from its alteration through trauma

in terms of the symptomology (Lamprecht & Sack,

2002). Symptoms included features such as fixation

on the trauma, constriction of personality functioning,

and atypical dream life. In most cases, the

organic etiology became untenable, and the syndromes

were forced into the existing nomenclature

of traumatic hysteria or traumatic neurasthenia

(Kinzie & Goetz, 1996).

At the onset of War World ll, the skeptics

regarded shell shock 0r war neurosis as a heterogeneous

group with many factors involved including

malingering as well as psychogenic (Turnbull,

1998a). Brill (1943) commented on the many terms

used to describe the affected soldiers such asexhaustion neurosis, shell shock, fright neurosis,

and asthenia. Although the reactions were caused

by fear, shock, and physical strain, they were also

found in nonservice men and in men never exposed

to shelling in warfare.

As the events of World War ll unfolded, psychoanalytic

concepts undenruent modifications, and

multiple analytic concepts were used to interpret

war-related neurosis. These theoretical concepts

represented an attempt to explain the multiple

symptoms seen in war neurosis in terms of an

intrapsychic model, which downplayed the role of

the trauma itself.

As the war continued, more American, British,

and Canadian studies began to describe and name

syndromes found among armed services personnel

such as acute exhaustion, war fatigue, war neurosis,

and old soldier's syndrome. The sheer volume of

observations by well-known psychiatrists gave

clinical validity to these findings (Lamprecht &

Sack. 2002).

Cannon (1932) defined the fighting and escaping

principles in both the psychological and physiological

sense as a person's reaction to impending

danger and the principal of homeostasis. Saul

(1945) identified traumatic war experiences with

the term combatfatigue and incorporated Cannon's

fight-fl ight reaction.

ln 1942, the Coconut Grove fire provided the

first modern clinical descriptions of reaction to

noncombatant trauma. Lindemann (1944) found

psychological grief among survivors characterized

by overactivity, expansiveness, some psychosomatic

symptoms, irritability, avoidance of social

relationships, and hosti I ity.

Grinker and Spiegel (1945), two American

psychiatrists in the Army Air Force, wrote about

what happens to soldiers who break under the stress

of modern warfare. Sixty-five case histories were

included as illustrative material with a description of

various therapies used to treat the psychological

casualties of combat. The most interesting aspects

were the etiology of the psychoneuroses or war

neuroses stated first in psychological terms and then

in terms of neurophysiology. Some of the symptoms

included passive dependent states, guilt and depression,

aggressive and hostile reactions, and psychotic-like

states.

Krystal (1969) edited the groundbreaking work

Massive Psychic Trauma, which looked at "concentration

camp syndrome" of Nazi Germany's

concentration camp survivors after World War ll,

Psychological Aspects of Stress edited by Harry S.

Abram (1970) is cited frequently in the trauma

literature as a mqjor contribution in the evolution of

PTSD. Abram examined the human response to

stressful events including psychological reactions to

life-threatening illness, concentration camps, emetgency

situations, combat, and the stresses of outer

space. As follow-up information on concentration

camp victims became increasingly available; a

chronic syndrome was described by many authors

with a high degree of agreement on symptoms with

both physical and psychological factors.

Selye and Fortier ('1950) introduced the "General

Adaptation Syndrome" with the three phases of

alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. As a result, the

term stress entered everyday language. Selye

(1974) introduced the concept of heterostasis,

thereby indicating the existence of an area between

maintaining a normal equilibrium and succumbing

to physical and mental breakdown. Once again the

external environment was discovered as the instigator

of threat and danger. Burgess and Holstrom

(1974) described "Rape Trauma Syndrome" noting

that the flashbacks and nightmares resembled the

traumatic neuroses of war.

The first concession to a unique syndrome was

published by the American Psychiatric Association

(APA; 1952) in the first edition of its Diagnostic

and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSMl)

which coincided with the Korean War. The

DSM-I called what is now known as PTSD

"Stress Response Syndrome" caused by gross stress

reaction under the category of transient situational

personality disorder.

The inclusion of Stress Response Syndrome

recognized that some reactions could occur in

normal persons at times of extreme physical and

emotional stress. However, it was specified that the

reactions were reversible and that the ego should

return to normal under treatment. This Freudian

view became even harder to maintain with the

follow-up studies from World War ll and the

increasing data from concentration camp victims

(Bradford & Bradford, 1947). However, this

information did not influence DSM-Il (APA, 1968)

in which the only comparable diagnosis given was

situational adjustment reaction of adult life.

The Vietnam War and PTSD ........

Many symptoms such as weakness, fatigue, and

loss of will power mentioned early on and by many

subsequent authors (Lamprecht & Sack, 2002) that

have historically been related to trauma did not find

a place in the DSM-Ill-R (APA, 1987), the DSM-IV

(APA, 1994), or the DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000).

Headache was a common symptom reported in both

combat and concentration camp victims, as well as

multiple psychophysiological reactions, particularly

gastrointestinal disturbances (Friedhelm &

Sack, 2002) are not mentioned.

There are few descriptions of dissociative symptoms,

except amnesia operating in PTSD. This fact

is recognized by the limited dissociative symptoms

required for the diagnosis of PTSD in DSM-IV-TR

(APA, 2000). DSM-lV-TR (APA, 2000) reflects the

ongoing ambivalence of psychiatry to maintain

dissociative disorders such as dissociative identity

disorder in a separate diagnostic group while stiMany symptoms such as weakness, fatigue, and

loss of will power mentioned early on and by many

subsequent authors (Lamprecht & Sack, 2002) that

have historically been related to trauma did not find

a place in the DSM-Ill-R (APA, 1987), the DSM-IV

(APA, 1994), or the DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000).

Headache was a common symptom reported in both

combat and concentration camp victims, as well as

multiple psychophysiological reactions, particularly

gastrointestinal disturbances (Friedhelm &

Sack, 2002) are not mentioned.

There are few descriptions of dissociative symptoms,

except amnesia operating in PTSD. This fact

is recognized by the limited dissociative symptoms

required for the diagnosis of PTSD in DSM-IV-TR

(APA, 2000). DSM-lV-TR (APA, 2000) reflects the

ongoing ambivalence of psychiatry to maintain

dissociative disorders such as dissociative identity

disorder in a separate diagnostic group while acknowledging a close relationship between psychological

trauma and dissociative symptoms (van

der Kolk, Herron, & Hostetler, 1994).

ADDITIONAL DIAGNOSTIC

CATEGORIES FOR TRAUMA

The DSM-IV field trial studied 440 treatmentseeking

patients and 128 community residents and

found that victims of prolonged interpersonal

trauma, particularly early in life, had a high

incidence of problems with (a) regulation of affect

and impulses, (b) memory and attention, (c) selfperception,

(d) interpersonal relations, (e) somatization,

and (0 systems of meaning (Roth, Newman,

Pelcovitz, van der Kolk, & Mandel, 1997).

Complex PTSD (C-PTSD) or disorders of extreme

stress not otherwise specified (DESNOS) attempted

to recognize the long-term psychological responses

of individuals exposed to prolonged periods of

violence such as various forms of captivity, childhood

physical or sexual abuse, domestic violence,

and organized sexual exploitation (Roth et al.,

1997; van der Kolk, Roth, Pelcovitz, Sunday, &

Spinazzola, 2005). However, these profound psychological

alterations that occurred among individuals

exposed to prolonged periods of captivity or

total control by another such as hostages, prisoners

of war, concentration camp survivors, and survivors

of long{erm interpersonal violence (Matussek,

1975; Niederland, '1964) were not captured in

PTSD as outlined by the DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000).

The DSM -IV-TR (APA, 2000) listed C-PTSD or

DESNOS not as a distinct diagnosis but under the

rubric of "associated and descriptive features" of

PTSD.

I have also had the pleasure to read my father's own analyses of the traumatic experiences of shell shocks later on named PTSD and even later C-PTSD during the years 1940-1945 in the war between Finland and Russia. 

Thanks so much, Beatrice. Mathias

Adding to the previous good responses, dissociation, as Béatrice has mentioned, may also contribute to memory disturbances. There are, at least, two explanations for that.

Merckelbach, H., Horselenberg, R., & Schmidt, H. (2002). Modeling the connection between self-reported trauma and dissociation in astudent sample. Personality Personality and Individual Differences, 32(4), 695- 705.

Merckelbach, H., & Jelicic, M. (2004). Dissociative symptoms are related to endorsement of vague trauma items. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 45, 70–75.

Merckelbach, H., Muris, P., Rassin, E., & Horselenberg, R. (2000). Dissociative experiences and interrogative suggestibility in college students. Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 1133–1140.

van der Kloet, D., Merckelbach, H., Giesbrecht, T., & Lynn, S. J. (2012). Fragmented sleep, fragmented mind: The role of sleep in dissociative symptoms. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(2), 159–175. doi:10.1177/1745691612437597

Dear Denise: The ICG developed by Priggerson and team was revised from the original version. Dr Priggerson now recommends using the PG-13 (A 13 question measure of prolonged grief) that they've developed to correspond with the proposed prolonged grief disorder criteria. Tool attached.

There is little investigation about it. But i do have a good clinical experience with it, specially with body issues like chronic pain and anxiety. I did both I and II levels. In Brasil there are study groups about it and maybe soon some studies are going to be published. A international conference of Brainspottingis going to hapen in 2016 in Brasil.

Look at US Navy aviators landing on an aircraft carrier. See this paper for a comparison of cortisol responses of the pilots vs naval flight officers during carrier landings. The pilots, but not the NFOs, showed elevated cortisol levels. Link to full-text:

Resilience research can be placed within three interrelated, cutting-edge trends in psychology: positive psychology, health and well-being, and post-traumatic growth (Linsley, 2004). Positive adaptation outcomes to psychological trauma has been explored by the literature on posttraumatic growth and Linsley (2003) has proposed the role of three dimensions, the recognition and management of uncertainty, the integration of acceptance and cognition; and the recognition and acceptance of human limitation (wisdom), as both processes and outcomes of traumatic adaptation. His review of empirical studies (Linley, 2004) have also documented positive growth following trauma and adversity associated with cognitive appraisal variables, problem-solving abilities, coping, and positive affect, independently from socio-demographic and psychological distress variables. Post-traumatic growth (PTG) is defined as a positive psychological change experienced as a result of struggling with highly challenging life circumstances (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004) and has been found to be a major personal resource following trauma, especially in health contexts. Findings support the idea that sustained post-traumatic growth is required to support resilience processes (Helgeson, Reynolds, & Tomich, 2006; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). Exposure to potentially traumatic events can lead to both post-traumatic growth and post-traumatic stress, and recently researchers have started investigating the commonalities and differences in the pathways through which they occur.However, the fact that PTG can positively correlate with both PTSD and resilience need further exploration. Shuettler and Boals (2011) found that PTSD symptoms were best predicted by visceral reactions to the events, event centrality, avoidant coping and a negative perspective of event, while PTG was best predicted by event centrality, problem-focused coping, and a positive perspective. Differential path, thus, seem tocharacterize PTSD and PTG. Finally, according to Tugade and Fredrickson (2007), positive emotionality and cognitive appraisals of threat would mediate the effect of resilience on regulating physiological arousal associated with stress. Their findings suggest that positive emotions contribute to the ability for resilient individuals to psychologically recover from negative emotional arousal and could reveal the dynamics of psychological resilience as they rather appear to aid resilient individuals in their ability to build psychological resources that are essential for coping effectively with stressful encounters, and lead to post-traumatic growth.

I hope this helps!