Solar Radiation - Science topic

Dr Paul Voytas thank you for your contribution to the discussion

In fact ice is slightly less reflective than water. The reflectivity is related to the refractive index and the refractive index of ice is 1.31 while the refractive index of water is 1.33. The slightly lower refractive index of ice will cause a slightly lower reflectivity. Water has a much lower albedo than ice. A typical albedo for open ocean water is 0.06 reflecting only 6 percent of incoming radiation while bare ice has a typical albedo of 0.5 and reflects 50 percent. Another important positive climate feedback is the so-called ice albedo feedback. This feedback arises from the simple fact that ice is more reflective (that is, has a higher albedo) than land or water surfaces. Therefore, as global ice cover decreases, the reflectivity.Snow-covered surfaces on the ice sheet reflect 80% of insolation back to space, while snow-free surfaces have lower albedo. Bare ice has an albedo of about 40% and even lower albedo if summer melts water pools are standing on the surface. Ice–albedo feedback is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of ice caps, glaciers, and sea ice alters the albedo and surface temperature of a planet. Ice is very reflective; therefore it reflects far more solar energy back to space than the other types of land area or open water. The darker ocean reflects only 6 percent of the sun's energy and absorbs the rest, while sea ice reflects 50 to 70 percent of the incoming energy. Snow has an even higher ability to reflect solar energy than sea ice. Snow-covered sea ice reflects as much as 90 percent of the incoming solar radiation. Snow and ice can reflect 50- 90% of incoming sunlight. As the Earth's average temperature rises, snow and ice cover decreases, increasing the amount sunlight being absorbed, and further contributing to global warming. Fresh snow and snow-covered sea ice may have an albedo higher than 80%, meaning that more than 80% of the suns energy striking the surface is reflected back to space. Even when melting in summer, sea ice has an albedo of more than 50%. The albedo for different surface conditions on the sea ice range widely, from roughly 85 per cent of radiation reflected for snow-covered ice to 7 per cent for open water. These two surfaces cover the range from the largest to the smallest albedo on earth.

In fact, Albedo is higher in Snow or Ice. Fresh snow has the largest reflection and hence the highest albedo. Fresh snow has the largest reflection and hence highest albedo, whereas Asphalt has the lowest albedo since it absorbs a maximum amount of solar radiation. Enceladus is not only Saturn's brightest moon, but it also has the highest albedo (reflectivity) of anybody in the solar system. This moon reflects almost 100% of the sunlight that hits the surface. It is highest in the Polar Regions where cloud and snow cover are plentiful and where average solar zenith angles are large. Secondary maxima of albedo occur in tropical and subtropical regions where thick clouds are prevalent, and over bright surfaces such as the Sahara Desert. The albedos of snow and ice are the greatest of any parts of the Earth's surface: Up to 90% of incoming solar energy is reflected in some places of Antarctica. "Albedo is the fraction of incident radiation that is reflected by a surface. While reflectance as this same fraction for a single incidence angle, albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all sun-view geometries." For reflections at flat unstructured surfaces, instead of reflectance one may also use the term reflectivity. However, the reflectance is a more general term and can be specified in a wider range of situations: Reflections can occur on rough surfaces, where light is scattered. If something has a high albedo, it reflects larger amounts of light energy back into the atmosphere. If something has a low albedo, it absorbs most of the light that hits it. As more light is reflected off an object, the less heat energy it holds. Albedo is the percentage of solar radiation reflected by an object. Reflectivity is the capacity of an object to reflect solar radiation. It is described as a function of radiation wavelength and is determined by the physical composition of the object.

Snow and ice can reflect 50- 90% of incoming sunlight. More than 80 to 90 percent of the sunlight falling on fresh snow is reflected back into space, compared to 15 to 35 percent of the sunlight reflected by most ice. The darker ocean reflects only 6 percent of the sun's energy and absorbs the rest, while sea ice reflects 50 to 70 percent of the incoming energy. Snow has an even higher ability to reflect solar energy than sea ice. Snow-covered sea ice reflects as much as 90 percent of the incoming solar radiation. Snow reflects more of the sun's energy because it is white and more 'reflective' than the darker ground surface beneath. In fact, snow is the most reflective natural surface on Earth. Snow's high reflectivity helps Earth's energy balance because it reflects solar energy back into space, which helps cool the planet. Snow's albedo, or how much sunlight it reflects back into the atmosphere, is very high, reflecting 80 to 90 percent of the incoming sunlight. Snow and ice have the highest albedos of any parts of Earth's surface: Some parts of Antarctica reflect up to 90% of incoming solar radiation. The solar radiation that passes through Earth's atmosphere is either reflected off snow, ice, or other surfaces or is absorbed by the Earth's surface.Radiation decreases with increasing depth of snow due to extinction (absorption). The intensity of radiation in snow decreases exponentially with depth. Depending on density and snow grain characteristics, the extinction coefficient varies between 20 and 150/m. Snow and ice can reflect 50- 90% of incoming sunlight. As the Earth's average temperature rises, snow and ice cover decreases, increasing the amount sunlight being absorbed, and further contributing to global warming. Snow-covered surfaces on the ice sheet reflect 80% of insolation back to space, while snow-free surfaces have lower albedo. Bare ice has an albedo of about 40% and even lower albedo if summer melts water pools are standing on the surface. Thus, about 71 percent of the total incoming solar energy is absorbed by the Earth system. Of the 340 watts per square meter of solar energy that falls on the Earth, 29% is reflected back into space, primarily by clouds, but also by other bright surfaces and the atmosphere itself. At Earth's average distance from the Sun (about 150 million kilometers), the average intensity of solar energy reaching the top of the atmosphere directly facing the Sun is about 1,360 watts per square meter. Because of their light color, snow and ice also reflect more sunlight than open water or bare ground, so a reduction in snow cover and ice causes the Earth's surface to absorb more energy from the sun and become warmer. Of the total amount of energy available at the top of the atmosphere, about 26% is reflected back out to space by the atmosphere and clouds via evapotranspiration which ultimately radiates the energy in the form of long wave radiations. Larger aerosol particles in the atmosphere interact with and absorb some of the radiation, causing the atmosphere to warm. The heat generated by this absorption is emitted as long wave infrared radiation, some of which radiates out into space. Of all of the solar radiation reaching Earth, 30% is reflected back to space and 70% is absorbed by the Earth (47%) and atmosphere (23%). Of the 100 units of incoming solar radiation, 30 are scattered or reflected back to space by the atmosphere and Earth's surface. Of these 30 units, 6 units are scattered by the air, water vapor, and aerosols in the atmosphere; 20 units are reflected by clouds; and 4 units are reflected by Earth's surface. About 29 percent of the solar energy that arrives at the top of the atmosphere is reflected back to space by clouds, atmospheric particles, or bright ground surfaces like sea ice and snow. This energy plays no role in Earth's climate system.

Areas near the equator receive more direct solar radiation than areas near the poles. However, these areas do not constantly get warmer and warmer, because the ocean currents and winds transport the heat from the lower latitudes near the equator to higher latitudes near the poles.

Earth in approx. radiative equilibrium with space (sun disk+4k elsewhere) => radiation out=in (taking account of sun angle to surface). Cold poles + fluid heat xfr => net effect of radiative coupling at poles is cooling. Loss of sea ice increases coupling at poles => should reduce earth temperature, and increase air/sea currents? I seem to remember (physics degree 50 years ago) a kirchof law for thermal equilibrium under radiative coupling: an isolated black body will take the mean temperature of its surroundings. I have not found it on google search, so I am not sure I got the situation exactly right. Anyway using that and the sun's subtense and its surface temperature and 4k for the rest, you can get plausible figures for the equilibrium temperature of a flat surface in earth orbit, at different angles to the line to the sun. The average temp over a sphere is roughly right as you would expect. Without heat xfr (air and sea) from the equatorial regions to the poles (and winter/summer transfer of retained heat), the winter polar regions would be 4k ... The polar regions are held above their radiative equilibrium level by heat from the rest of the planet. If the loss of sea ice increases the radiative coupling of the polar regions to the cold space they see, I would expect this to increase their heat loss. I am frequently told the loss of polar sea ice would heat the earth further, by TV etc. This seems implausible. If it is indeed correct, can someone please explain it to me. PS how much does the heat flow from the earth's core raise the temperature? - I expect very little, still it is interesting to reflect that earth's radiative coupling to space reduces its surface temperature (from something which would melt rock) - we are not so much heated by the sun as cooled by the rest of the sky· Reply Earth sciences news on Phys.org AI finds formula for how to predict monster waves by using 700 years' worth of data Study examines how massive 2022 eruption changed stratosphere chemistry and dynamics NASA mission excels at spotting greenhouse gas emission sources Aug 10, 2023 #2 Frabjous Gold Member 1,370 1,611 It changes the albedo. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo Reply Like Likes AlexB23 and BillTre Reference: https://www.physicsforums.com/threads/how-does-the-loss-of-sea-ice-affect-earths-temperature.1054827/

The Sun emits energy in the form of short-wave radiation, which is weakened in the atmosphere by the presence of clouds and absorbed by gas molecules or suspended particles. After passing through the atmosphere, solar radiation reaches the oceanic and continental land surface and is reflected or absorbed. The stratospheric ozone layer acts as a very efficient natural filter for UV-B radiation. It is in fact the most important factor in reducing dangerous amounts of solar UV-B radiation reaching the Earth's surface. Cloud coverage and air pollution can also reduce the amount of radiation that reaches Earth's surface. Clouds and aerosols in the atmosphere can scatter and absorb all radiation bands. As cloud cover increases, the angle of the sun becomes less important when measuring irradiance. The increase in the cloud cover rate causes the decrease in solar constant value and solar radiation on the earth's surface. Solar constant plays an important role in the planning and technical analysis of equipment utilizing solar energy.Snow and ice, airborne particles, and certain gases have high albedos and reflect different amounts of sunlight back into space. Low, thick clouds are reflective and can block sunlight from reaching the Earth's surface, while high, thin clouds can contribute to the greenhouse effect. Solar radiation storms occur when a large-scale magnetic eruption, often causing a coronal mass ejection and associated solar flare, accelerates charged particles in the solar atmosphere to very high velocities. The most important particles are protons which can get accelerated to large fractions of the speed of light. The amount of solar radiation intercepted by the earth is called extraterrestrial radiation. As it makes its way towards the ground, it is depleted when passing through the atmosphere. On average, less than half of extraterrestrial radiation reaches ground level. The Earth absorbs most of the energy reaching its surface, a small fraction is reflected. In total approximately 70% of incoming radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and the Earth's surface while around 30% is reflected back to space and does not heat the surface. Some of this incoming radiation is reflected off clouds, some is absorbed by the atmosphere, and some passes through to the Earth's surface. Larger aerosol particles in the atmosphere interact with and absorb some of the radiation, causing the atmosphere to warm.

The solar radiation that reaches the Earth's surface without being diffused is called direct beam solar radiation. The sum of the diffuse and direct solar radiation is called global solar radiation. Atmospheric conditions can reduce direct beam radiation by 10% on clear, dry days and by 100% during thick, cloudy days. Snow and ice, airborne particles, and certain gases have high albedos and reflect different amounts of sunlight back into space. Low, thick clouds are reflective and can block sunlight from reaching the Earth's surface, while high, thin clouds can contribute to the greenhouse effect. In addition to the sun's angle, atmospheric conditions can affect radiation levels. Cloud cover, air pollution and the hole in the ozone layer all alter the amount of solar radiation that can reach the surface. These factors all cause typical radiation levels to differ.Not all of the Sun's energy that enters Earth's atmo- sphere makes it to the surface. The atmosphere reflects some of the incoming solar energy back to space immediately and absorbs still more energy before it can reach the surface. The remaining energy strikes Earth and warms the surface. The combination of these factors means that the tropical regions of the Earth receive a greater input of solar radiation than the poles. This is why the tropical regions are generally warmer than the Polar Regions. Incoming solar radiation is strongest at the Equator and weakest at the Poles. In total approximately 70% of incoming radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and the Earth's surface while around 30% is reflected back to space and does not heat the surface. The Earth radiates energy at wavelengths much longer than the Sun because it is colder. The incoming solar radiation is known as insolation. The amount of solar energy reaching the Earth is 70 percent. The surface of the Earth absorbs 51 percent of the insolation. Water vapor and dust account for 16 percent of the energy absorbed. Some of this energy is emitted back from the Earth's surface in the form of infrared radiation. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and other trace gases in Earth's atmosphere absorb the longer wavelengths of outgoing infrared radiation from Earth's surface. The greater the angle of the sun, the more ozone that sunlight must pass through to reach the surface. In addition to the sun's angle, atmospheric conditions can affect radiation levels. Cloud cover, air pollution and the hole in the ozone layer all alter the amount of solar radiation that can reach the surface.

The maximum radiation intensity of the solar spectrum occurs at 500 nm, towards the blue end of the visible range. The complete spectrum comprises the ultraviolet (UV), visible (Vis) and infrared (IR) wavelengths. However, these wavelength ranges need to be sub-divided depending on the individual application fields. The maximum recorded direct solar radiation on the surface of the earth is 1050 W/m2. The maximum global radiation on a horizontal surface at ground level has been recorded is 1120 W/m2. Solar radiation is largely optical radiation [radiant energy within a broad region of the electromagnetic spectrum that includes ultraviolet (UV), visible (light) and infrared radiation], although both shorter wavelength (ionizing) and longer wavelength (microwaves and radiofrequency) radiation is present. Larger aerosol particles in the atmosphere interact with and absorb some of the radiation, causing the atmosphere to warm. The heat generated by this absorption is emitted as long wave infrared radiation, some of which radiates out into space. About 40 per cent of the solar radiation received at the earth's surface on clear days is visible radiation within the spectral range 0.4 to 0.7 μm, while 51 per cent is infrared radiation in the spectral region 0.7 to 4 μm. The total radiation emitted by the sun in unit time remains practically constant. As it traverses our atmosphere, it gets scatterd by clouds, atmospheric gas molecules, dust particles etc. Some of it is absorbed by the some gas molecules. The maximum radiation that can be received from solar light is about 1000 watts per square meter (W/m²). Some of this incoming radiation is reflected off clouds, some is absorbed by the atmosphere, and some passes through to the Earth's surface. Larger aerosol particles in the atmosphere interact with and absorb some of the radiation, causing the atmosphere to warm.

Shortwave solar radiation that's absorbed by Earth's surface or atmosphere is re-radiated it as longwave, infrared radiation, also known as heat. The more solar radiation is absorbed, the more heat is re-radiated and the temperature of the atmosphere goes up. Incoming solar radiation is shortwave, ultraviolet, and visible radiation; outgoing Earth radiation is long wave infrared radiation.The Sun emits radiation at a shorter wavelength than the Earth because it has a higher temperature and Planck's curve for higher temperatures peaks at shorter wavelengths. It is for this reason that Earth's radiation is referred to as long wave and the Sun's radiation is shortwave. All of the energy from the Sun that reaches the Earth arrives as solar radiation, part of a large collection of energy called the electromagnetic radiation spectrum. Solar radiation includes visible light, ultraviolet light, infrared, radio waves, X-rays, and gamma rays. Radiation is one way to transfer heat. Incoming Solar Radiation it all starts with the Sun, where the fusion of hydrogen creates an immense amount of energy, heating the surface to around 6000°K; the Sun then radiates energy outwards in the form of ultraviolet and visible light, with a bit in the near-infrared part of the spectrum. Heat resulting from the absorption of incoming shortwave radiation is emitted as long wave radiation. Radiation from the warmed upper atmosphere, along with a small amount from the Earth's surface, radiates out to space.Absorption of sunlight causes the molecules of the object or surface it strikes to vibrate faster, increasing its temperature. This energy is then re-radiated by the Earth as long wave, infrared radiation, also known as heat. Therefore, absorption occurs due to the presence of water vapour, carbon dioxide, and ozone in the atmosphere and other particulate matter. The heat generated by this absorption is emitted as long wave infrared radiation, some of which radiates out into space.

Low, thick clouds primarily reflect solar radiation and cool the surface of the Earth. High, thin clouds primarily transmit incoming solar radiation; at the same time, they trap some of the outgoing infrared radiation emitted by the Earth and radiate it back downward, thereby warming the surface of the Earth. Marine stratus and stratocumulus clouds predominantly cool the Earth. They shade roughly a fifth of the oceans, reflecting 30 to 60 percent of the solar radiation that hits them back into space. In this way, they are reckoned to cut the amount of energy reaching the Earth's surface by between 4 and 7 percent.Clouds are between the Earth's surface and the Sun, and liquid water-droplet clouds are quite reflective of the Sun's short wavelength radiation. High clouds make the world a warmer place. If more high clouds were to form, more heat energy radiating from the surface and lower atmosphere toward space would be trapped in the atmosphere, and Earth's average surface temperature would climb.High clouds make the world a warmer place. If more high clouds were to form, more heat energy radiating from the surface and lower atmosphere toward space would be trapped in the atmosphere, and Earth's average surface temperature would climb. While some types of clouds help to warm the Earth, others help to cool it. Stratus clouds: A thick, low grey blanket, stratus clouds block sunlight from reaching the Earth like an umbrella and thus have a net cooling effect. Cloud albedo depends on the total mass of water, the size and shape of the droplets or particles and their distribution in space. Thick clouds reflect a large amount of incoming solar radiation, translating to a high albedo. High clouds primarily reflect solar radiation and cool the surface of the Earth." This statement is not entirely correct because while high clouds do reflect some of the Sun`s radiation back to space, they also trap some of the Earth`s heat, leading to a warming effect, not a cooling effect. On average, clouds reflect 20% of the incoming solar radiation, but the actual amount of individual clouds can vary. For example, thin clouds have an albedo of 30 to 50%, while thick clouds can have an albedo of up to 90%. So, on average, only 70% of the solar radiation reaches the sea surface.

Snow-covered surfaces on the ice sheet reflect 80% of insolation back to space, while snow-free surfaces have lower albedo. Bare ice has an albedo of about 40% and even lower albedo if summer meltwater pools are standing on the surface. The darker ocean reflects only 6 percent of the sun's energy and absorbs the rest, while sea ice reflects 50 to 70 percent of the incoming energy. Snow has an even higher ability to reflect solar energy than sea ice. Snow-covered sea ice reflects as much as 90 percent of the incoming solar radiation. Snow and ice can reflect 50- 90% of incoming sunlight. As the Earth's average temperature rises, snow and ice cover decreases, increasing the amount sunlight being absorbed, and further contributing to global warming. The solar radiation that passes through Earth's atmosphere is either reflected off snow, ice, or other surfaces or is absorbed by the Earth's surface. Because of their light color, snow and ice also reflect more sunlight than open water or bare ground, so a reduction in snow cover and ice causes the Earth's surface to absorb more energy from the sun and become warmer. Of the incoming solar radiation that hits the boundary between the Earth's atmosphere and outer space, about 30% is reflected back to space by atmospheric clouds and the Earth's surface, 25% is absorbed by the atmosphere and reradiated back to space, and 45% is absorbed by the surface of land and ocean. About 29 percent of the solar energy that arrives at the top of the atmosphere is reflected back to space by clouds, atmospheric particles, or bright ground surfaces like sea ice and snow. This energy plays no role in Earth's climate system. Snow, ice, and clouds have high albedos (typically from 0.7 to 0.9) and reflect more energy than they absorb. Earth's average albedo is about 0.3. In other words, about 30 percent of incoming solar radiation is reflected back into space and 70 percent is absorbed. Most of Earth's energy comes from the Sun. Snow and ice can reflect 50- 90% of incoming sunlight. As the Earth's average temperature rises, snow and ice cover decreases, increasing the amount sunlight being absorbed, and further contributing to global warming. Cloud cover can be highly variable in space and time. Combining together the percentages of incoming energy absorbed (18%) and scattered (26%) by the atmosphere plus clouds, the overall effect is that nearly half (18% + 26% = 44%) of the energy entering the atmosphere doesn't make it through to Earth's surface.

Dr Murtadha Shukur thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Dr Murtadha Shukur thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Solar radiation that is not absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere reaches the surface of the Earth. The Earth absorbs most of the energy reaching its surface, a small fraction is reflected. Atmospheric gas molecules and aerosols deflect solar radiation from its original path, scattering (reflecting) some radiation back into deep space and some toward Earth's surface. Clouds reflect much more incoming solar radiation than they absorb. The solar radiation that reaches the Earth's surface without being diffused is called direct beam solar radiation. The sum of the diffuse and direct solar radiation is called global solar radiation. Atmospheric conditions can reduce direct beam radiation by 10% on clear, dry days and by 100% during thick, cloudy days. The majority of energy from the Sun reaches Earth in the form of visible and infrared radiation. Just over half of this incoming solar energy ultimately reaches the ground. The rest is reflected away by low-level, thick, white clouds or ice or gets absorbed by the atmosphere. Near the equator, the Sun's rays strike the Earth most directly, while at the poles the rays strike at a steep angle. This means that less solar radiation is absorbed per square cm (or inch) of surface area at higher latitudes than at lower latitudes, and that the tropics are warmer than the poles. The amount and intensity of solar radiation that a location or body of water receives depends on a variety of factors. These factors include latitude, season, time of day, cloud cover and altitude. Not all radiation emitted from the sun reaches Earth's surface. Latitude, climate, and weather patterns are major factors that affect insolation—the amount of solar radiation received on a given surface area during a specific amount of time. The Earth is unevenly heated because it is a sphere. Because Earth is a sphere, not all part of the Earth receives the same amount of solar radiation. Because Earth is a sphere, not all part of the Earth receives the same amount of solar radiation. More solar radiation is received and absorbed near the equator than at the poles. Near the equator, the Sun's rays strike the Earth most directly, while at the poles the rays strike at a steep angle

The sun angle is always high over the tropical oceans so the surface receives intense radiation throughout the year. With a high sun angle the albedo of the surface is low and absorption is high. When the sun's rays strike Earth's surface near the equator, the incoming solar radiation is more direct (nearly perpendicular or closer to a 90˚ angle). Therefore, the solar radiation is concentrated over a smaller surface area, causing warmer temperatures. At the poles, the ice, snow and cloud cover create a much higher albedo, and the poles reflect more and absorb less solar energy than the lower latitudes. Through all of these mechanisms, the poles absorb much less solar radiation than equatorial regions, which is why the poles are cold and the tropics are very warm. In the tropics there is a net energy surplus because the amount of sunlight absorbed is larger than the amount of heat radiated. In the Polar Regions, however, there is an annual energy deficit because the amount of heat radiated to space is larger than the amount of absorbed sunlight. Atmospheric gas molecules and aerosols deflect solar radiation from its original path, scattering (reflecting) some radiation back into deep space and some toward Earth's surface. Clouds reflect much more incoming solar radiation than they absorb. Some of this incoming radiation is reflected off clouds, some is absorbed by the atmosphere, and some passes through to the Earth's surface. Larger aerosol particles in the atmosphere interact with and absorb some of the radiation, causing the atmosphere to warm. Earth's atmosphere is composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen. These gases are transparent to incoming solar radiation. They are also transparent to outgoing infrared radiation, which means that they do not absorb or emit solar or infrared radiation. The Earth's atmosphere is transparent to some wavelengths of microwave radiation, but not to others. The longer wavelengths (waves more similar to radio waves) pass through the Earth's atmosphere more easily than the shorter wavelength microwaves. Thus, most incoming solar radiation is transmitted through the atmosphere to the ground and solar radiation is not an effective heater of the atmosphere much better at absorbing this longer wavelength radiation. In the tropics there is a net energy surplus because the amount of sunlight absorbed is larger than the amount of heat radiated. In the Polar Regions, however, there is an annual energy deficit because the amount of heat radiated to space is larger than the amount of absorbed sunlight. The tropics refer to the region of Earth around the equator. The weather here is, on average, hot and humid. The curve of the planet leads to the tropics receiving more direct solar radiation than the rest of the Earth and more than the region re-radiates back to space.

Venus and Earth are sometimes called twins because they're pretty much about the same size. Venus is almost as big as Earth. They also formed in the same inner part of the solar system. Venus is in fact our closest neighbor to Earth. Venus is sometimes called Earth's twin because Venus and Earth are almost the same size, have about the same mass and have a very similar composition. They are also neighboring planets. Mars is a very interesting place. It's like Earth in many ways, but it's also strange and mysterious just like a brother. Maybe one day humans will visit or even live there, but, until then, we can continue to learn about our brother, Mars, a special part of the family of planets in our solar system. Tropical regions receive, per unit area and per unit time, greater amounts of solar radiation than any other ecosystems. This is again due to a spherical Earth, whereby light energy at higher latitudes intercepts the earth's surface at a more oblique angle compared with the tropics. When the sun's rays strike Earth's surface near the equator, the incoming solar radiation is more direct (nearly perpendicular or closer to a 90˚ angle). Therefore, the solar radiation is concentrated over a smaller surface area, causing warmer temperatures. At the poles, the ice, snow and cloud cover create a much higher albedo, and the poles reflect more and absorb less solar energy than the lower latitudes. Through all of these mechanisms, the poles absorb much less solar radiation than equatorial regions, which is why the poles are cold and the tropics are very warm. Tropical regions receive, per unit area and per unit time, greater amounts of solar radiation than any other ecosystems. This is again due to a spherical Earth, whereby light energy at higher latitudes intercepts the earth's surface at a more oblique angle compared with the tropics.

The melting of polar ice caps decreases the absorption of solar energy. This is because ice has a high albedo, meaning it reflects a lot of sunlight back into space. When ice melts, it is replaced by water, which has a lower albedo and absorbs more sunlight. This absorbed sunlight warms the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming.

The reason the sun appears brighter when it snows is also related to albedo. Snow reflects a lot of sunlight, making everything around it appear brighter. This is why sunglasses are recommended even on cloudy days when there is snow on the ground.

Here is a table summarizing the effects of ice and snow on solar energy absorption:

SurfaceAlbedoAbsorption of solar energyIceHighLowWaterLowHighSnowHighLow

drive_spreadsheetExport to Sheets

As you can see, ice and snow both have high albedos and reflect a lot of sunlight back into space. Water, on the other hand, has a low albedo and absorbs more sunlight. This is why the melting of polar ice caps and glaciers is a major concern for climate scientists.

The insolation reaching any one spot on Earth's surface varies according to latitude and season. Earth is a sphere. This means that the sun's rays hit the different latitudes of Earth at different angles. The angle at which the sun's rays hit the Earth determines the intensity of the solar radiation at that location. In the last module, you learned that solar radiation is not distributed equally across the Earth because of Earth's tilt, rotation and revolution around the sun. This is the primary cause of weather and climate.Solar radiation at the Earth's surface varies from the solar radiation incident on the Earth's atmosphere. Cloud cover, air pollution, latitude of a location, and the time of the year can all cause variations in solar radiance at the Earth's surface. Because Earth is a sphere, not all part of the Earth receives the same amount of solar radiation. More solar radiation is received and absorbed near the equator than at the poles. Near the equator, the Sun's rays strike the Earth most directly, while at the poles the rays strike at a steep angle. If the Earth was a flat surface facing the sun, every part of that surface would receive the same amount of incoming solar radiation. However, because the Earth is a sphere, sunlight is not equally distributed over the Earth's surface, so different regions of Earth will be heated to different degrees. Solar radiation spectrum at sea level has pronounced dips, which are due to absorption in the atmosphere and this spectrum, as compared to the incident spectrum on top of the atmosphere. These dips are also not present in the reflected radiation from the earth atmosphere: the albedo. The spectral composition and amount of solar energy intercepted at Earth's ground and water surfaces are not exactly the same as that arriving at the outer atmospheric edges, because the atmosphere interacts with and modifies the radiation traveling through it. Sunlight, or the solar radiation spectrum, includes bands between 100 nm and 1 mm, which encompasses ultraviolet, visible and infrared radiation. The greater the angle of the sun, the more ozone that sunlight must pass through to reach the surface. In addition to the sun's angle, atmospheric conditions can affect radiation levels. Cloud cover, air pollution and the hole in the ozone layer all alter the amount of solar radiation that can reach the surface. Solar radiation at the Earth's surface varies from the solar radiation incident on the Earth's atmosphere. Cloud cover, air pollution, latitude of a location, and the time of the year can all cause variations in solar radiance at the Earth's surface.

The Earth is unevenly heated because it is a sphere. Because Earth is a sphere, not all part of the Earth receives the same amount of solar radiation. More solar radiation is received and absorbed near the equator than at the poles. In the Polar Regions, however, there is an annual energy deficit because the amount of heat radiated to space is larger than the amount of absorbed sunlight. There's an energy deficit between 35˚ North and the North Pole, and between 35˚ South and the South Pole. Here the outgoing radiation exceeds incoming insolation. Insolation rises sharply from approximately 50 joules at the poles to 275 joules at the equator. Net radiation is at a minimum over the poles as the sunlight that comes in at a low angle is reflected from the ice-covered surface. Combined with the long polar night, very little net radiation is found at these latitudes. The angle of incoming solar radiation influences seasonal temperatures of locations at different latitudes. When the sun's rays strike Earth's surface near the equator, the incoming solar radiation is more direct. The Sun does not heat all parts of the Earth to the same extent; the Equator receives more energy than the poles. This is because the Earth is round and spins leaning over in relation to the Sun. The equator receives the most direct sunlightbecause sunlight arrives at a perpendicular (90 degree) angle to the Earth. Sunlight rays are concentrated on smaller surface areas, causing warmer temperatures and climates. As incoming rays move further away from the equator, solar intensity decreases. The equator gets the most direct sunlight year-round. The angle of sunlight hitting the equator is more direct than it is at the poles, so the poles receive less direct sunlight. The main consequence is that less energy is received in Polar Regions, so temperatures are cooler. Areas near the equator receive more direct solar radiation than areas near the poles. The equator receives the most direct and concentrated amount of sunlight. So the amount of direct sunlight decreases as you travel north or south from the equator.

Near the equator, the angle of the Sun is usually higher throughout the year. Because of this, the sun is generally stronger in these places than in places farther from the equator. Countries close to the equator, like those in the tropics, get consistently strong sunlight, making solar panels produce more energy. As the Earth orbits the sun on a tilted axis, regions closer to the equator reap higher energy production. Weather conditions like precipitation, pollution, and fog affect efficiency, yet solar panels can generate power even in cloudy conditions. Not surprisingly, the site with the highest solar energy potential on Earth happens to be near the equator, surrounded by an arid climate away from major sources of pollution, and it also happens to be on a plateau. In locations close to the equator, the sun has a high position in the sky during most of the year, and solar panels are installed horizontally, facing up. Because the Earth is a sphere, the surface gets much more intense sunlight (heat) at the equator than at the poles. During the equinox (the time of year when the amount of daylight and nighttime are approximately equal), the Sun passes directly overhead at noon on the equator. Near the equator, the Sun's rays strike the Earth most directly, while at the poles the rays strike at a steep angle. This means that less solar radiation is absorbed per square cm (or inch) of surface area at higher latitudes than at lower latitudes, and that the tropics are warmer than the poles. As the equator is the farthest curve of the sphere, it receives the most direct sunlight. This is why the equator is one of the hottest areas of the planet. The sun's rays are strongest at the equator where the sun is most directly overhead and where UV rays must travel the shortest distance through the atmosphere. Venus is always hotter, even at night. As the innermost planet in the Solar System, Mercury receives the most radiation from the Sun: almost four times as much as Venus receives. At its hottest, Mercury reaches daytime temperatures of ~800 °F, while at night, it plunges to more than 100 degrees below zero. More solar radiation is received and absorbed near the equator than at the poles. Near the equator, the Sun's rays strike the Earth most directly, while at the poles the rays strike at a steep angle. The equator receives the most direct and concentrated amount of sunlight.

On an average those would be the poles. As you correctly pointed out, due to the tilt of the Earth's axis, there are large areas that receive very little and sometimes no sunlight at all and those change throughout the year. But on an average, poles are the ones that get the least amount of solar radiation. While it is not a big surprise that the worst location for solar energy on Earth is near one of the poles, this site is more than 1,000 kilometers away from the North Pole itself. Because Earth is a sphere, not all part of the Earth receives the same amount of solar radiation. More solar radiation is received and absorbed near the equator than at the poles. The Earth's atmosphere and magnetic shield protect us from cosmic radiation. Earth's magnetic shield protects us from the cosmic radiation and is strongest at the equator and weakest near the poles. The combination of these factors means that the tropical regions of the Earth receive a greater input of solar radiation than the poles. This is why the tropical regions are generally warmer than the Polar Regions. Incoming solar radiation is strongest at the Equator and weakest at the Poles. In the summer, solar radiation (measured by irradiance) will be greatest over the equator and the hemisphere tilted toward the sun. Over most of Earth's surface, the solar radiation received is measured by the solar irradiance. The angle of sunlight hitting the equator is more direct than it is at the poles, so the poles receive less direct sunlight. Much less solar energy gets to the poles. The difference in the amount of solar energy drives atmospheric circulation.

This can happen when the number of sunspots in one hemisphere peak at a different time than the other hemisphere, causing an extended maximum. Solar maximum can last about two years before things die down, meaning the chance of solar storms can remain high for longer than the actual peak. The lifespan of a solar maximum is about 11 years. During this time, the number of sunspots on the Sun's surface increases dramatically, as does the amount of solar radiation emitted. The estimated operational lifespan of a PV module is about 30-35 years, although some may produce power much longer. At mid latitudes, the sun's rays hit the Earth at a slant. This means that incoming solar radiation is spread over a larger surface area, and so is less intense than at equatorial latitudes. Earth's mid latitudes generally experience seasonal warm and cool temperatures during the year.The sun angle at a place varies over the course of the year as a result of the constant tilt and parallelism of the earth's axis. As the sun angle decreases, light is spread over a larger area and decreases in intensity. This is due to decreasing incoming sunlight angles that result in the Sun's rays being spread out over a greater surface area of the Earth. Latitudes near the poles always receive the Sun's rays at lower angles, thus creating a colder climate. Because of the curvature of the Earth, sunlight strikes the poles at a low angle. Rays striking Earth at a low angle must pass through more atmospheres. Earth's atmosphere absorbs and reflects solar energy. The more atmosphere the rays have to pass through, the less solar energy reaches Earth's surface. The Sun provides the Earth with most of its energy. Today, about 71% of the sunlight that reaches the Earth is absorbed by its surface and atmosphere. Absorption of sunlight causes the molecules of the object or surface it strikes to vibrate faster, increasing its temperature. The amount of solar energy reaching the Earth is 70 percent. The surface of the Earth absorbs 51 percent of the insolation. Water vapor and dust account for 16 percent of the energy absorbed. The other 3 percent is absorbed by clouds.

The region with the highest mean annual insolation is the Atacama desert in the Andes because of a combination of: low latitude, high altitude, low cloudiness, low humidity, and low aerosols.

Generally, the higher the latitude, the greater the range in solar radiation received over the year and the greater the difference from season to season. At the equator there is little difference; however, at the multitudes there are large differences between summer and winter. Clear-sky solar radiation incident on the Earth at midday is approximately 26 J m−2 per day during summer, but approximately 9 J m−2 per day during winter at 42° N latitude. Because the angle of radiation varies depending on the latitude, surface temperatures on average are warmer at lower latitudes and cooler at higher latitudes. The sun's rays are far more slanted during the shorter days of the winter months. Cities such as Denver, Colorado, (near 40° latitude) receive nearly three times more solar energy in June than they do in December. The rotation of the Earth is also responsible for hourly variations in sunlight. Lighter surfaces are more reflective than darker surfaces (which absorb more energy), and therefore have a higher albedo. At the poles, the ice, snow and cloud cover create a much higher albedo, and the poles reflect more and absorb less solar energy than the lower latitudes. Solar radiation is most direct at, or close to, the equator and thus produces warmer temperatures. Farther from the equator and closer to the poles, solar radiation is less intense, and sunlight strikes Earth at less direct angles, resulting in cooler temperatures.Because the Earth is a sphere, the surface gets much more intense sunlight (heat) at the equator than at the poles. During the equinox (the time of year when the amount of daylight and nighttime are approximately equal), the Sun passes directly overhead at noon on the equator. More solar radiation is received and absorbed near the equator than at the poles. Near the equator, the Sun's rays strike the Earth most directly, while at the poles the rays strike at a steep angle. Higher latitudes receive less solar radiation because the sun's rays stride the Earth's surface at a less direct angle. This spreads the same amount of solar energy over a larger area, resulting in lower temperatures. More solar radiation is received and absorbed near the equator than at the poles. Higher latitudes receive less solar radiation because the sun's rays stride the Earth's surface at a less direct angle. This spreads the same amount of solar energy over a larger area, resulting in lower temperatures. The Equator, at 0° latitude, receives a maximum intensity of the sun's rays all year. As a result, areas near Earth's Equator experience relatively constant sunlight and little solstice variation. This causes the Sun's rays to strike the Earth's surface at different angles, creating variances in temperatures on Earth.

Yes, as a consequence of this geometry of the sun and the earth, large seasonal variations occur in the amount of solar radiation received at different latitudes of the earth. The largest annual variations occur near the two poles and the smallest near the equator. At higher latitudes, the angle of solar radiation is smaller, causing energy to be spread over a larger area of the surface and cooler temperatures. The annual amount of incoming solar energy varies considerably from tropical latitudes to polar latitudes. At middle and high latitudes, it also varies considerably from season to season. The peak energy received at different latitudes changes throughout the year. Every location on Earth receives sunlight at least part of the year. The amount of solar radiation that reaches any one spot on the Earth's surface varies according to: Geographic location and time of day.Because Earth is a sphere, not all part of the Earth receives the same amount of solar radiation. More solar radiation is received and absorbed near the equator than at the poles. Near the equator, the Sun's rays strike the Earth most directly, while at the poles the rays strike at a steep angle. While the solar radiation incident on the Earth's atmosphere is relatively constant, the radiation at the Earth's surface varies widely due to: atmospheric effects, including absorption and scattering; local variations in the atmosphere, such as water vapour, clouds, and pollution; latitude of the location. The insolation received at the surface varies from about 320 Watt/m2 in the tropics to about 70 Watt/m2 in the poles. Maximum insolation is received over the subtropical deserts, where the cloudiness is the least. Equator receives comparatively less insolation than the tropics. The coldest temperature on Earth ever recorded was -128.6° F at the Russian Vostok Station in Antarctica on July 21, 1983. How cold is that? It's about 20° F colder than subliming dry ice! Throughout the year, Antarctica's temperatures can vary drastically. In the southern hemisphere, the Pole of Cold is currently located in Antarctica, at the Russian (formerly Soviet) Antarctic station Vostok at 78°28′S 106°48′E. On July 21, 1983, this station recorded a temperature of −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F). This is the lowest naturally occurring temperature ever recorded on Earth. Due to the spherical shape of the Earth, sunlight falls on different parts at different angles. Direct and focused sun rays falls on the equator and hence, the regions here are hotter and warmer. The Polar Regions receive diffused sun rays, which is why the areas there are colder.

In theory, you cannot get an intensity larger than the solar constant anywhere on Earth. However, the previous answers missed 2 things:

- The actual extraterrestrial irradiance fluctuates by ±3.4% around the mean value of that constant, now best estimated at 1361.1 W/m2 [per ASTM E490]. The maximum is reached around Jan. 4 each year, i.e. 1407.8 W/m2.

- There are relatively frequent transient cloudiness situations known as "cloud enhancement" that can result in getting global horizontal or tilted irradiance far exceeding the normal max values just mentioned during a few seconds or minutes. See

Dr Murtadha Shukur thank you for your contribution to the discussion

The highest glass transmittance is obtained with single pane of THIN LOW-IRON glass with anti-reflective coating. To minimize the exiting longwave you would have to apply another specific coating, but its efficiency would not be ideal with a single pane of glass.

Dr Murtadha Shukur thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Rk Naresh Yes Sir, the intensity of solar radiation is at its maximum when sunlight is perpendicular to the Earth's surface, typically around solar noon. This is when the Sun is directly overhead at the equator, and the solar radiation is most concentrated. The intensity of solar radiation is affected by factors such as the angle of incidence and the Earth's axial tilt, causing variations in different locations and seasons.

As for the amount of incoming solar energy absorbed by the Earth's system, on average, about 70% of the incoming solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth's surface, oceans, and atmosphere. This absorbed solar energy is a crucial driver of Earth's climate and various environmental processes. The remaining 30% is reflected back into space, with a portion of it being reflected by clouds, atmospheric particles, and the Earth's surface.

This balance between absorption and reflection is essential for maintaining the Earth's energy balance and sustaining the planet's climate. The absorbed solar energy is responsible for heating the Earth's surface, driving weather patterns, supporting the water cycle, and providing the energy necessary for life on Earth.

Rk Naresh

About 23% of incoming solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere. This absorption occurs primarily in the ozone layer and other gases, leading to the warming of the atmosphere.

Approximately 30% of incoming solar radiation is reflected back to space by clouds, atmospheric particles, and the Earth's surface. This portion includes both direct reflection (albedo) and diffuse reflection.

Roughly 47% of incoming solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth's surface. This absorption warms the surface and is a crucial driver of various Earth processes, including the water cycle and atmospheric circulation.

Some solar radiation is scattered in different directions by molecules and small particles in the atmosphere. This scattering contributes to the blue color of the sky during the day.

Regarding the specific question about how much of the incoming solar energy is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds, it's important to note that the atmosphere, including clouds, absorbs only a fraction of the total solar radiation. The majority of absorption occurs in the lower atmosphere and the stratosphere, particularly in the ozone layer.

Clouds play a complex role. They can both reflect incoming solar radiation back to space (increasing Earth's albedo) and absorb and re-radiate infrared radiation emitted by the Earth's surface. The net effect of clouds on the Earth's energy balance depends on their altitude, thickness, and composition.

Dr Bishir Umar thank you for your contribution to the discussion

At latitudes near the equator the Earth's surface is almost directly perpendicular to the angle of the sun's rays. In these regions, solar radiation is intense because the sun's energy is concentrated over a small surface area. The maximum recorded direct solar radiation on the surface of the earth is 1050 W/m2. The maximum global radiation on a horizontal surface at ground level has been recorded is 1120 W/m2. Above the earth's atmosphere, solar radiation has an intensity of approximately 1380 watts per square meter (W/m2). This value is known as the Solar Constant. At our latitude, the value at the surface is approximately 1000 W/m2 on a clear day at solar noon in the summer months. In contrast, those in higher latitudes receive sunlight that is spread over a larger area and that has taken a longer path through the atmosphere. As a result, these higher latitudes receive less solar energy. Near the equator, the Sun's rays strike the Earth most directly, while at the poles the rays strike at a steep angle. This means that less solar radiation is absorbed per square cm (or inch) of surface area at higher latitudes than at lower latitudes, and that the tropics are warmer than the poles. Because the Earth is a sphere, the surface gets much more intense sunlight (heat) at the equator than at the poles. During the equinox (the time of year when the amount of daylight and nighttime are approximately equal), the Sun passes directly overhead at noon on the equator. The angle at which the Sun's rays strike the Earth changes from the equator toward the poles. The result is that incoming solar radiation decreases with latitude. More solar radiation is received in the tropics than at the poles, resulting in an equator-to-pole temperature gradient. One of the key reasons more warming occurs at high latitudes – even in the absence of sea ice – is the absence of convection at high latitudes. Convection occurs when air close to the ground is heated by the warm surface of the Earth. The warmed air is lighter than the cold air above and so starts to rise.

The more slanted the sun's rays are, the longer they travel through the atmosphere, becoming more scattered and diffuse. Because the Earth is round, the frigid Polar Regions never get a high sun, and because of the tilted axis of rotation, these areas receive no sun at all during part of the year.At higher latitudes, the angle of solar radiation is smaller, causing energy to be spread over a larger area of the surface and cooler temperatures. The insolation reaching any one spot on Earth's surface varies according to latitude and season. Earth is a sphere. This means that the sun's rays hit the different latitudes of Earth at different angles. The angle at which the sun's rays hit the Earth determines the intensity of the solar radiation at that location. The amount of solar radiation varies with latitude because of the curvature of the earth. The temperature decreases from the equator to the poles. This is why the Earth's 23.5 degree tilt is all important in changing our seasons. Near June 21st, the summer solstice, the Earth is tilted such that the Sun is positioned directly over the Tropic of Cancer at 23.5 degrees north latitude. This situates the northern hemisphere in a more direct path of the Sun's energy. The equatorial region receives more solar radiation not only because the Sun's rays hit the region more directly (i.e., at less of an angle), but also because they travel through less of the atmosphere to get there main consequence is that less energy is received in polar regions, so temperatures are cooler. When the sun's rays strike Earth's surface near the equator, the incoming solar radiation is more direct (nearly perpendicular or closer to a 90˚ angle). Therefore, the solar radiation is concentrated over a smaller surface area, causing warmer temperatures. As explained above because of the revolution and Tilt of the Earth, the areas close to the Equator receive maximum solar radiation.The orientation of Earth's surface relative to the Sun's rays diminishes the intensity of solar radiation at high latitudes. The Sun's rays must pass through more atmospheres at higher latitudes. Due to the spherical shape of the Earth, sunlight falls on different parts at different angles. Direct and focused sun rays falls on the equator and hence, the regions here are hotter and warmer. The polar regions receive diffused sun rays, which is why the areas there are colder.

I believe that if light is not absorbed by a surface, it is mostly reflected. Reflection occurs when incoming solar radiation bounces back from an object or surface that it strikes in the atmosphere, on land, or water, and is not transformed into heat. Not all of the Sun's energy that enters Earth's atmosphere makes it to the surface. The atmosphere reflects some of the incoming solar energy back to space immediately and absorbs still more energy before it can reach the surface. The remaining energy strikes Earth and warms the surface. In contrast, dark earthy surfaces have a low albedo, therefore, they absorb more sunlight. Thus, the proportion of Earth's surface that is covered by ice and snow affects how much of the Sun's solar radiation is absorbed, warming the planet, or reflected. Solar radiation, which includes infrared heat waves and visible light waves, is mostly absorbed by Earth's atmosphere. But due to Earth's reflectivity, or albedo, some of that radiation bounces off of Earth's atmosphere. The sun's rays hit at a flatter angle at higher latitudes, so the solar energy is spread over a wider area. Near the equator, the Sun's rays strike the Earth most directly, while at the poles the rays strike at a steep angle. This means that less solar radiation is absorbed per square cm (or inch) of surface area at higher latitudes than at lower latitudes, and that the tropics are warmer than the poles. Solar radiation that is not absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere reaches the surface of the Earth. The Earth absorbs most of the energy reaching its surface, a small fraction is reflected. Solar radiation that is not absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere (for example by clouds) reaches the surface of the Earth. The Earth absorbs most of the energy reaching its surface, a small fraction is reflected.

You have already learned that Earth's atmosphere is composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen. These gases are transparent to incoming solar radiation. They are also transparent to outgoing infrared radiation, which means that they do not absorb or emit solar or infrared radiation. CO2 molecules don't really interact with sunlight's wavelengths. Only after the Earth absorbs sunlight and reemits the energy as infrared waves can the CO2 and other greenhouse gases absorb the energy. When sunlight strikes the earth's surface, some of it radiates back toward space as infrared radiation (heat). Greenhouse gases absorb this infrared radiation and trap its heat in the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that results in global warming and climate change. Not all gas molecules are able to absorb IR radiation. For example, nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2), which make up more than 90% of Earth's atmosphere, do not absorb infrared photons. CO2 molecules can vibrate in ways that simpler nitrogen and oxygen molecules cannot, which allows CO2 molecules to capture the IR photons. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere repeatedly absorb and re-radiate infrared radiation (heat). High clouds trap long wave, infrared radiation (heat) re-radiated from Earth's surface. However, low clouds reflect incoming sunlight (shortwave radiation) back to space. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere repeatedly absorb and re-radiate infrared radiation (heat). High clouds trap long wave, infrared radiation (heat) re-radiated from Earth's surface. However, low clouds reflect incoming sunlight (shortwave radiation) back to space. At the summer solstice of the northern hemisphere, daily insolation reaches a maximum at the North Pole because of the 24-hour-long solar day. At the winter solstice, the sun does not rise above the horizon north of about 66.5°, where solar insolation is zero. A location receives its most intense radiation during summer, and its least intense radiation during winter. Summer occurs when a hemisphere is tilted towards the sun. This tilt causes the hemisphere to get more direct sunlight for more hours a day, and temperatures tend to be warmer.

The temperature of the Polar Regions is significantly colder than the equatorial regions because the sun's rays are not directly at the poles. Thus poles receive the slanted rays of the sun. The equator is a crucial imaginary line that separates the north and south hemispheres, and therefore it gets direct sunlight. Due to the spherical shape of the Earth, sunlight falls on different parts at different angles. Direct and focused sun rays falls on the equator and hence, the regions here are hotter and warmer. The Polar Regions receive diffused sun rays, which is why the areas there are colder. The hottest temperatures on Earth are found near the equator. This is because the sun shines directly on it for more hours during the year than anywhere else. As you move further away from the equator towards the poles, less sun is received during the year and the temperature becomes colder. It is cooler in regions further away from the equator because as the distance of a place from the equator increases, the sun's rays become more and more slanting. Slanting rays spread over a larger land area than vertical rays. The Sun's rays hit the Earth's surface at different angles depending on latitude. At the equator, the Sun's rays are almost perpendicular to the surface, spreading the energy over a smaller area and resulting in more intense sunlight. The Sun emits solar radiation, as ultraviolet radiation or shortwave radiation. The Earth emits infrared radiation or long wave radiation. This follows directly from the electromagnetic energy spectrum and the respective temperatures of the Sun and Earth. The Sun doesn't heat the Earth evenly. Because the Earth is a sphere, the Sun heats equatorial regions more than Polar Regions. The atmosphere and ocean work non-stop to even out solar heating imbalances through evaporation of surface water, convection, rainfall, winds, and ocean circulation. The changing tilt of the Earth means that the Equator faces the sun all year round whereas the poles can be darkness for six months of the year. This keeps the Equator's temperature high all year round.

Near the equator, the Sun's rays strike the Earth most directly, while at the poles the rays strike at a steep angle. This means that less solar radiation is absorbed per square cm (or inch) of surface area at higher latitudes than at lower latitudes, and that the tropics are warmer than the poles. Because the Earth is round, the sun strikes the surface at different angles, ranging from 0° to 90°. The amount and intensity of solar radiation reaching the Earth is affected by the tilt of the Earth's axis and its orientation as it revolves around the Sun. The sun angle at a place varies over the course of the year as a result of the constant tilt and parallelism of the earth's axis. At the equator the sun is perpendicular to the surface, allowing maximum solar radiation to be distributed over a small surface area. Closer to the poles, the incoming solar radiation is the same but the light is spread over a larger surface area so the intensity is lower at a particular location. Wind is caused by uneven heating of the earth's surface by the sun. Because the earth's surface is made up of different types of land and water, the earth absorbs the sun's heat at different rates.The regions near the equator are hotter than the polar regions because direct sunlight falls on the equator region. The Polar Regions receive sunlight at slanted angles, thereby, limiting the amount of solar energy reaching the poles. The equator gets the most direct sunlight year-round. The angle of sunlight hitting the equator is more direct than it is at the poles, so the poles receive less direct sunlight. The factors that cause these variations in insolation are: (i) the rotation of earth on its axis; (ii) the angle of inclination of the sun's rays; (iii) the length of the day; (iv) the transparency of the atmosphere; (v) the configuration of land in terms of its aspect. The last two however, have less influence. The Equator receives direct sunlight while Poles receive slant or oblique rays of the Sun. Because Earth is a sphere, not all part of the Earth receives the same amount of solar radiation. More solar radiation is received and absorbed near the equator than at the poles. Near the equator, the Sun's rays strike the Earth most directly, while at the poles the rays strike at a steep angle.

Yes, the equator does receive about 10 times more incoming solar radiation than the poles. This is because the sun's rays are more concentrated at the equator, where they are perpendicular to the Earth's surface. At the poles, the sun's rays are spread out over a larger area, so they are less intense. The total amount of insolation received at the equator is roughly about 10 times of that received at the poles. Infrared rays constitute roughly two-thirds of insolation. Infrared waves are largely absorbed by water vapour that is concentrated in the lower atmosphere. Because the Earth is a sphere, the surface gets much more intense sunlight (heat) at the equator than at the poles. During the equinox (the time of year when the amount of daylight and nighttime are approximately equal), the Sun passes directly overhead at noon on the equator. The equator receives the most direct sunlight because sunlight arrives at a perpendicular (90 degree) angle to the Earth. Sunlight rays are concentrated on smaller surface areas, causing warmer temperatures and climates. As incoming rays move further away from the equator, solar intensity decreases. At the poles, the ice, snow and cloud cover create a much higher albedo, and the poles reflect more and absorb less solar energy than the lower latitudes. Through all of these mechanisms, the poles absorb much less solar radiation than equatorial regions, which is why the poles are cold and the tropics are very warm. The more slanted the sun's rays are, the longer they travel through the atmosphere, becoming more scattered and diffuse. Because the Earth is round, the frigid Polar Regions never get a high sun, and because of the tilted axis of rotation, these areas receive no sun at all during part of the year.

Near the equator, the Sun's rays strike the Earth most directly, while at the poles the rays strike at a steep angle. This means that less solar radiation is absorbed per square cm (or inch) of surface area at higher latitudes than at lower latitudes, and that the tropics are warmer than the poles. Because the Earth is round, the sun strikes the surface at different angles, ranging from 0° to 90°. The amount and intensity of solar radiation reaching the Earth is affected by the tilt of the Earth's axis and its orientation as it revolves around the Sun. The sun angle at a place varies over the course of the year as a result of the constant tilt and parallelism of the earth's axis. The regions near the equator are hotter than the Polar Regions because direct sunlight falls on the equator region. The Polar Regions receive sunlight at slanted angles, thereby, limiting the amount of solar energy reaching the poles. The equator gets the most direct sunlight year-round. The angle of sunlight hitting the equator is more direct than it is at the poles, so the poles receive less direct sunlight. Sunlight hits a smaller surface area at the Equator so heats up quickly compared to the poles. There are fewer atmospheres to pass through at the Equator compared to the poles. This means more heat from the sun makes it to the surface of the Earth. The factors that cause these variations in insolation are: (i) the rotation of earth on its axis; (ii) the angle of inclination of the sun's rays; (iii) the length of the day; (iv) the transparency of the atmosphere; (v) the configuration of land in terms of its aspect. The last two however, have less influence. Solar radiation at the Earth's surface varies from the solar radiation incident on the Earth's atmosphere. Cloud cover, air pollution, latitude of a location, and the time of the year can all cause variations in solar radiance at the Earth's surface. The Equator receives direct sunlight while Poles receive slant or oblique rays of the Sun. Because the Earth is round, the frigid Polar Regions never get a high sun, and because of the tilted axis of rotation, these areas receive no sun at all during part of the year. The Earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit and is closer to the sun during part of the year.

The type of solar radiation responsible for warming the Earth is infrared radiation. Infrared radiation has a wavelength longer than visible light, and it is this radiation that is absorbed by the Earth's surface and atmosphere, causing them to warm up. Infrared radiation is responsible for warming Earth's surface and atmosphere. Infrared light is on the opposite side of the spectrum from ultraviolet light. This radiation has a wavelength of >700 nm and provides 49.4% of solar energy. Solar radiation is shortwave, high-energy radiation, including visible light. When solar radiation is absorbed, it transfers its energy to Earth's surface or atmosphere causing the temperature of the land, air, or water to increase. It is infrared radiation that produces the warm feeling on our bodies. Most of the solar radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere, and much of what reaches the Earth's surface is radiated back into the atmosphere to become heat energy. A warming of the planet due to an increase in solar irradiance probably results in the release of methane and carbon dioxide from stores in the oceans and icecaps, and these greenhouse gases can then produce additional warming. Overall, Earth reflects about 29% of the incoming solar radiation, and therefore, we say the Earth's average albedo is 0.29. Snow and ice, airborne particles, and certain gases have high albedos and reflect different amounts of sunlight back into space. Of the roughly 56% of the incoming solar radiation making it through the atmosphere to Earth's surface, about 6% gets reflected by the surface and 50% is absorbed at the surface. Albedo is the amount of sunlight (solar radiation) reflected by a surface, and is usually expressed as a percentage or a decimal value, with 1 being a perfect reflector and 0 absorbing all incoming light.The fraction of solar radiation reflected by a surface or object, often expressed as a percentage. Snow covered surfaces have a high albedo; the albedo of soils ranges from high to low; vegetation covered surfaces and oceans have a low albedo. Radiation from the warmed upper atmosphere, along with a small amount from the Earth's surface, radiates out to space. Most of the emitted longwave radiation warms the lower atmosphere, which in turn warms our planet's surface. The sun's radiation strikes the ground, thus warming the rocks. As the rock's temperature rises due to conduction, heat energy is released into the atmosphere, forming a bubble of air which is warmer than the surrounding air. This bubble of air rises into the atmosphere.

The Sun's radiation is the weakest at the poles because the Earth is tilted at an angle of 23.5 degrees relative to its orbit around the Sun. This means that the Sun's rays are more concentrated at the equator than at the poles, and the longer the path of sunlight through the atmosphere, the more the sunlight is scattered and absorbed. As a result, the poles receive less energy from the Sun than the equator.

This is why tropical regions receive a greater input of solar radiation than the poles. The Sun's rays are almost perpendicular to the surface at the equator at solar noon, and so the sunlight is not spread over a large area. This means that the sunlight is concentrated and can heat the Earth's surface more effectively. At the poles, the Sun's rays are spread over a larger area because they are angled more obliquely to the surface. This means that the sunlight is not as concentrated and cannot heat the Earth's surface as effectively.

In addition, the atmosphere at the equator is thicker than the atmosphere at the poles. This means that there is more air to absorb and scatter the sunlight at the equator. As a result, the sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface at the equator is less intense than the sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface at the poles.

The combination of these factors means that the tropical regions of the Earth receive a greater input of solar radiation than the poles. This is why the tropical regions are generally warmer than the polar regions.

The sun's incoming solar radiation is the strongest at the subtropical latitudes, which are located between 23.5 degrees north and south of the equator. This is because the sun's rays strike the Earth's surface at a more direct angle at these latitudes than they do at the equator. As a result, the amount of solar radiation that is absorbed by the Earth's surface is greater at the subtropical latitudes.

The reason why solar radiation received at the equator is lower than that at the tropics is because the Earth is tilted on its axis. This tilt causes the sun's rays to strike the Earth's surface at different angles throughout the year. At the equator, the sun's rays strike the Earth's surface at a more oblique angle than they do at the tropics. This means that the amount of solar radiation that is absorbed by the Earth's surface is less at the equator than it is at the tropics.

The solar radiation cycle and solar irradiance at the Earth's surface vary due to several factors, including the Earth's tilt, its rotation, and the presence of an atmosphere.

The solar radiation cycle is an approximately 11-year cycle of variation in the Sun's activity. During periods of high solar activity, the Sun emits more energy, including more ultraviolet (UV) radiation. This can lead to increases in the Earth's ozone layer, which can have both positive and negative effects on human health and the environment.

The solar radiation cycle is not uniform across the Earth's surface. The equator receives more solar radiation than the poles, and this difference is exacerbated during periods of high solar activity. This is because the Earth is tilted on its axis, and the equator is always tilted more directly towards the Sun than the poles.

Solar irradiance is the amount of solar radiation that reaches the Earth's surface. The amount of solar irradiance that reaches the Earth's surface is lower than the amount of solar radiation that reaches the top of the atmosphere due to several factors, including:

As a result of these factors, the amount of solar irradiance that reaches the Earth's surface varies depending on a number of factors, including the time of day, the season, and the latitude. The amount of solar irradiance that reaches the Earth's surface is also affected by clouds, aerosols, and other atmospheric conditions.

Yes, The Earth's atmosphere is very good at reflecting shortwave radiation, which is the type of radiation that the sun emits. The Earth absorbs most of the energy reaching its surface, a small fraction is reflected. In total approximately 70% of incoming radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and the Earth's surface while around 30% is reflected back to space and does not heat the surface. The equator does receive about 10 times more incoming solar radiation than the poles. This is because the sun's rays are more concentrated at the equator, where they are perpendicular to the Earth's surface. At the poles, the sun's rays are spread out over a larger area, so they are less intense. When the sun's rays strike Earth's surface near the equator, the incoming solar radiation is more direct (nearly perpendicular or closer to a 90˚ angle). Therefore, the solar radiation is concentrated over a smaller surface area, causing warmer temperatures. Because Earth is a sphere, sunlight hits the curved surface more directly closer to the equator and less directly closer to the poles. Solar radiation is most direct at, or close to, the equator and thus produces warmer temperatures. About 23 percent of incoming solar energy is absorbed in the atmosphere by water vapor, dust, and ozone, and 48 percent passes through the atmosphere and is absorbed by the surface. Thus, about 71 percent of the total incoming solar energy is absorbed by the Earth system. About 30% of the sun's incoming energy never reaches Earth because it is reflected back into space by clouds and other atmospheric particles. This reflection is known as albedo. All of the energy the sun releases does not reach Earth. One one-billionth of the Sun's total energy output actually reaches the Earth. Of all the energy that does reach Earth, slightly less than 34 percent is reflected back to space by clouds. About 29 percent of the solar energy that arrives at the top of the atmosphere is reflected back to space by clouds, atmospheric particles, or bright ground surfaces like sea ice and snow. This energy plays no role in Earth's climate system.Consider that the insolation received at the top of the atmosphere is 100 per cent. While passing through the atmosphere some amount of energy is reflected, scattered and absorbed. Only the remaining part reaches the earth surface. Roughly 35 units are reflected back to space even before reaching the earth's surface.

Yes, microwaves do reach Earth's surface. They are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from 1 millimeter to 1 meter. Microwaves are used in a variety of applications, including radar, microwave ovens, and cellular telephones.

The type of solar radiation that is most harmful to life on Earth is ultraviolet (UV) radiation. UV radiation has wavelengths ranging from 100 nanometers to 400 nanometers. It can damage DNA and cause sunburn, skin cancer, and cataracts.

The Earth's atmosphere absorbs most UV radiation, but some of it does reach the surface. The amount of UV radiation that reaches the surface varies depending on the time of day, the season, and the latitude.

There are a number of things that people can do to protect themselves from UV radiation, including:

Here is a table summarizing the different types of solar radiation and their effects on life on Earth:

The Earth's surface receives varying amounts of solar radiation due to several factors:

Only about 25% of the incoming solar radiation reaches the Earth's surface. The remaining 75% is either reflected back into space by clouds and the Earth's surface (albedo) or absorbed by the atmosphere. The absorbed radiation heats the atmosphere, which in turn re-emits some of this energy back to Earth as infrared radiation. This process contributes to the greenhouse effect, which helps regulate Earth's temperature.

UVC rays do not reach the Earth's surface because they are completely absorbed by the atmosphere. Gamma radiations are produced by the Sun as a result of nuclear fusion reactions but these radiations have a very low wavelength and are unable to reach the Earth's Surface. All of the energy from the Sun that reaches the Earth arrives as solar radiation, part of a large collection of energy called the electromagnetic radiation spectrum. Solar radiation includes visible light, ultraviolet light, infrared, radio waves, X-rays, and gamma rays. Radiation is one way to transfer heat. Snow and ice, airborne particles, and certain gases have high albedos and reflect different amounts of sunlight back into space. Low, thick clouds are reflective and can block sunlight from reaching the Earth's surface, while high, thin clouds can contribute to the greenhouse effect. The Earth absorbs most of the energy reaching its surface, a small fraction is reflected. In total approximately 70% of incoming radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and the Earth's surface while around 30% is reflected back to space and does not heat the surface. Atmospheric gas molecules and aerosols deflect solar radiation from its original path, scattering (reflecting) some radiation back into deep space and some toward Earth's surface. Clouds reflect much more incoming solar radiation than they absorb. The Earth absorbs most of the energy reaching its surface, a small fraction is reflected. In total approximately 70% of incoming radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and the Earth's surface while around 30% is reflected back to space and does not heat the surface. Some sunlight is reflected back into space, but some is absorbed by Earth's atmosphere and surface. Energy radiated from Earth's surface as heat, or infrared radiation, is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases, impeding the loss of heat from our atmosphere to space.The Earth absorbs most of the energy reaching its surface, a small fraction is reflected. In total approximately 70% of incoming radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and the Earth's surface while around 30% is reflected back to space and does not heat the surface. Not all of the Sun's energy that enters Earth's atmosphere makes it to the surface. The atmosphere reflects some of the incoming solar energy back to space immediately and absorbs still more energy before it can reach the surface. The remaining energy strikes Earth and warms the surface.

The equator receives the most direct and concentrated amount of sunlight. So the amount of direct sunlight decreases as you travel north or south from the equator. At higher latitudes, the angle of solar radiation is smaller, causing energy to be spread over a larger area of the surface and cooler temperatures. The equator is found at 0° latitude. As the equator is the farthest curve of the sphere, it receives the most direct sunlight. This is why the equator is one of the hottest areas of the planet. Due to the spherical shape of the Earth, sunlight falls on different parts at different angles. Direct and focused sun rays falls on the equator and hence, the regions here are hotter and warmer. The Polar Regions receive diffused sun rays, which is why the areas there are colder. The lowest latitudes get the most energy from the sun. The highest latitudes get the least. The difference in solar energy received at different latitudes drives atmospheric circulation. Places that get more solar energy have more heat. The equator receives the most direct and concentrated amount of sunlight. So the amount of direct sunlight decreases as you travel north or south from the equator. Look at the diagram of Earth above that shows different latitudes. “The sun is closer to the equator than the poles. Therefore the sun's rays have less distance to travel to the equator. The further the rays have to travel the more energy (heat) they lose. Therefore the sun's rays at the equator have more energy (heat) than the rays at the poles. “At high latitudes and especially in the polar regions, the low precipitation is caused partly by subsidence of air in the high-pressure belts and partly by the low temperatures. Snow or rain occurs at times, but evaporation from the cold sea and land surfaces is slow, and the cold air has little capacity for moisture. As you can see above, because of the curve of the Earth a sunbeam of Insolation hitting the Earth at higher latitudes has to spread out over a larger surface area than one reaching the Equator. Thus lowering the amount of Insolation per km2 in more Northerly and Southerly latitudes. The angle of sunlight hitting the equator is more direct than it is at the poles, so the poles receive less direct sunlight.The more slanted the sun's rays are, the longer they travel through the atmosphere, becoming more scattered and diffuse. Because the Earth is round, the frigid Polar Regions never get a high sun, and because of the tilted axis of rotation, these areas receive no sun at all during part of the year.

To calculate the daily power output of a photovoltaic (PV) system using the temperature of the PV cells and the reference temperature by considering the temperature coefficient of the PV module. Here's a basic method to do this:

1) Determine the Temperature Coefficient: Check the specifications or datasheet of your PV module to find the temperature coefficient (typically given in %/°C) for the maximum power point (MPP). This coefficient represents how much the module's efficiency changes with temperature.

2) Measure or Obtain Temperature Data: You'll need the temperature data for the PV cells throughout the day. You can obtain this data from weather stations, sensors, or on-site measurements.

3) Define the Reference Temperature: The reference temperature is usually 25°C. This is the standard temperature at which PV module performance is rated.

4) Calculate Temperature Difference: For each time interval (e.g., hourly), calculate the difference between the actual cell temperature and the reference temperature.

5) Calculate Efficiency Change: Use the temperature coefficient to calculate how much the module's efficiency changes with the temperature difference. The formula is:

Efficiency Change (%) = Temperature Coefficient (%) / 100 * Temperature Difference (°C)

6) Calculate Daily Power Output: For each time interval, apply the efficiency change to the module's maximum power. Then sum up the power values for all intervals throughout the day to get the total daily power output.

Daily Power Output = Σ (Maximum Power at MPP * (1 + Efficiency Change))

Please note that this is a simplified approach. In reality, you may need to consider more factors such as shading, system losses, and changes in solar radiation throughout the day. Moreover, using specific software or simulation tools designed for PV system performance analysis can provide a more accurate calculation of daily power output.

and after that , i made a new cae only considering the solar radiation using the dflux subroutine, and here is the subquence.

Not all solar radiation reaches the Earth's surface because it is absorbed or scattered by the atmosphere. The atmosphere is made up of gases, water vapor, and particles, all of which can interact with sunlight.

Absorption occurs when sunlight hits a molecule or particle and is converted into heat. This is how the atmosphere is heated, and it is also how we feel the warmth of the sun on our skin.

Scattering occurs when sunlight hits a molecule or particle and is deflected in a different direction. This is why the sky appears blue on a clear day; the blue light from the sun is scattered more than the other colors.

The amount of solar radiation that is absorbed or scattered by the atmosphere depends on a number of factors, including:

On average, about 30% of solar radiation is reflected back into space by the atmosphere. The remaining 70% is absorbed by the atmosphere and the Earth's surface.

The solar radiation that is absorbed by the atmosphere heats the atmosphere and contributes to the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is a natural process that keeps the Earth's surface warm enough for life. However, human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, are releasing additional greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, which is causing the greenhouse effect to become stronger and the Earth to warm.

The solar radiation that is absorbed by the Earth's surface heats the land and oceans. This heat drives the global climate system and produces weather patterns such as wind, rain, and snow.

So, to summarize, solar radiation that is not reflected back into space is either absorbed by the atmosphere or the Earth's surface. The solar radiation that is absorbed by the atmosphere heats the atmosphere and contributes to the greenhouse effect. The solar radiation that is absorbed by the Earth's surface heats the land and oceans and drives the global climate system.

Olumide Alabi Both R and Python are capable of handling crop growth modeling with controlled-climate data. The choice between the two largely depends on your familiarity with the programming languages and your specific requirements. Here's a brief overview:

1. R:

- R is known for its strong statistical and data analysis capabilities, making it suitable for working with agricultural data.

- It has packages like "agricolae," "crop," and "phytotools" that are specifically designed for crop modeling.

- You can utilize packages like "ggplot2" for data visualization, which can be helpful in understanding the results of your crop growth model.

- R's user-friendly interfaces like RStudio make it accessible for researchers with different backgrounds.

2. Python:

- Python is a versatile programming language with a wide range of libraries and frameworks.

- Libraries like "numpy," "pandas," and "scipy" provide robust data manipulation and scientific computing capabilities.

- "matplotlib" and "seaborn" are popular Python libraries for data visualization.

- Python offers machine learning libraries like "scikit-learn" that can be used for predictive modeling in agriculture.

- Integration with Jupyter notebooks allows for interactive data analysis and modeling.

For crop growth modeling with controlled-climate data, you can use either R or Python, depending on your personal preference and the specific tasks you need to perform. If you are comfortable with both languages, you may choose the one that aligns better with your existing workflow or research team's preferences. Additionally, consider the availability of relevant packages and resources in the chosen language to streamline your work.

Dear Rk Naresh,

This question is the reverse of the question you mentioned here above.

Hence, the region of the Earth that receives the least solar radiation and has the coldest climate is typically found in the polar regions, specifically the North and South Poles. These areas experience extremely cold temperatures and receive very little solar radiation, especially during their respective winter seasons when they are tilted away from the Sun. The polar regions can have months of darkness and very limited sunlight during their respective winters, contributing to their extreme cold.

Conversely, the region that receives the most solar radiation, aside from the equator, is typically found in the subtropical zones known as the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. These are the regions located at approximately 23.5 degrees north and 23.5 degrees south of the equator, respectively.

Humble regards,

Dr Rahul Prasad Singh thank you for your contribution to the discussion

In fact near the equator, the Sun's rays strike the Earth most directly, while at the poles the rays strike at a steep angle. This means that less solar radiation is absorbed per square cm (or inch) of surface area at higher latitudes than at lower latitudes, and that the tropics are warmer than the poles. The angle of sunlight hitting the equator is more direct than it is at the poles, so the poles receive less direct sunlight.The amount of solar radiation received by the planet is greatest at the Equator and lessens toward the poles. At the poles the Sun never rises very high in the sky and sunlight filters through a thick wedge of atmosphere. Latitude is the most important climatic control, due to the effect is has on the amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface. The seasonal changes in incoming solar radiation, as well as the length of the day, vary with latitude.Lines of latitude are significant not just for global navigation but, more fundamentally, because they reflect the changing angle of the sun in respect to the earth. This alone determines day length, seasonality, and to a large extent, climate. The more slanted the sun's rays are, the longer they travel through the atmosphere, becoming more scattered and diffuse. Because the Earth is round, the frigid Polar Regions never get a high sun, and because of the tilted axis of rotation, these areas receive no sun at all during part of the year. At the equator, the Sun's rays are most direct. This is where temperatures are highest. At higher latitudes, the Sun's rays are less direct. The farther an area is from the equator, the lower its temperature. Generally, the higher the latitude, the greater the range in solar radiation received over the year and the greater the difference from season to season. There is a relationship between latitude and temperature around the world, as temperatures are typically warmer approaching the Equator and cooler approaching the Poles. There are variations, though, as other factors such as elevation, ocean currents, and precipitation affect climate patterns. The latitude and altitude affect the pressure and wind system. It causes changes in rainfall pattern and temperature. The regions that are far from the sea experience extreme weather conditions. There is a very high temperature in summers and very low in winters. The Sun's angle is much lower, so the rays of energy are spread out over a much larger area and are therefore less intense. Because of the Earth's curvature, the rays must travel further through the atmosphere, with more chance of being reflected. The amount of solar radiation varies with latitude because of the curvature of the earth. The temperature decreases from the equator to the poles.

Energy radiated from Earth's surface as heat, or infrared radiation, is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases, impeding the loss of heat from our atmosphere to space. Earth's spin causes the Coriolis force which deflects the direction of air moving towards or away from the poles.Most heat is transferred in the atmosphere by radiation and convection. Sunlight absorbed by Earth's surfaces is re-radiated as heat, warming the atmosphere from the bottom up. This heat is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, resulting in the greenhouse effect. However, air moves from warm to cold regions and redistributes all of the incoming solar energy. The moving air creates the atmosphere's general circulation patterns. These general circulation patterns redistribute incoming solar radiation and they play a role in determining the climate of certain regions. Winds and ocean currents play a major role in moving the surplus heat from the equatorial regions to the Polar Regions. Without this heat transfer, the polar regions of Earth would get colder every year and regions between ~ 35 N and 35 S would get warmer every year. The difference in solar energy received at different latitudes drives atmospheric circulation. Places that get more solar energy have more heat. Places that get less solar energy have less heat. Warm air rise and cool air sinks. Warm moist air from the tropics gets fed north by the surface winds of the Ferrel cell. This then meets cool dry air moving south in the Polar cell. The polar front forms where these two contrasting air mass meet, leading to ascending air and low pressure at the surface, often around the latitude of the UK. The Earth spins on its axis from west to east. The Coriolis force, therefore, acts in a north-south direction. The Coriolis force is zero at the Equator. Though the Coriolis force is useful in mathematical equations, there is actually no physical force involved. The Earth is a sphere, and if you were floating in space above the North Pole the Earth appears to spin counterclockwise. From above the South Pole it spins clockwise. Whether it roates clockwise or counter clockwise depends on your perspective. If you are looking down on our solar system from the North Pole’s side, the planet spins on its axis in a counter-clockwise direction. If you're looking at our solar system from the other side, it rotates in a clockwise direction.

The increasing temperature causes a narrowing of the forbidden gap and a shift of the Fermi energy level toward the centre of the forbidden gap. Both these effects lead to a reduction of the potential barrier in the band diagram of the illuminated PN junction, and thus to a decrease of the photovoltaic voltage.

Therefore, solar radiation level has a direct effect on the panel power. As a result, a decrease in solar radiation level reduces the panel power. On the other hand, there is an inverse proportion between temperature and panel power. In other words, panel power decreases as the ambient temperature increases. The highest output power of PV panel will be produced by a combination of high solar irradiance and low temperature. As illustrated in this figure, the most efficient power production by PV panel was 15.43 % when PV panel temperature was 25 °C at 1000 Wm-2. The open circuit voltage of a PV module varies with cell temperature. As the temperature increases, due to environmental changes or heat generated by internal power dissipation during energy production, the open circuit voltage (Voc) decreases. This in turn reduces the power output. As the solar radiation increases, the power produced will also increase, as shown in Figure 2. At 9.00 am, the solar radiation is the lowest, which is 319.00 W/m 2. While the highest solar radiation that has been recorded is at 1.00 pm, which are 1039.00 W/m 2 and the power produced by PV modules are 398.09 W. Climate change will impact temperature and irradiance and therefore will alter the output capacity of PV systems. PV systems present a negative linear relationship between the energy output and the temperature change while the increase of solar radiation is proportional to the PV energy output. Photovoltaic modules are tested at a temperature of 25 degrees C (STC) about 77 degrees F., and depending on their installed location, heat can reduce output efficiency by 10-25%. As the temperature of the solar panel increases, its output current increases exponentially, while the voltage output is reduced linearly. However, solar power generation is sensitive to climate changes imposing a definite limitation on the stability of solar electricity supply. As, changes in the frequency of cloudy and rainy weathers can substantially affect PV power outputs. The production of hazardous contaminates, water resources pollution, and emissions of air pollutants during the manufacturing process as well as the impact of PV installations on land use are important environmental factors to consider. The increasing temperature causes a narrowing of the forbidden gap and a shift of the Fermi energy level toward the centre of the forbidden gap. Both these effects lead to a reduction of the potential barrier in the band diagram of the illuminated PN junction, and thus to a decrease of the photovoltaic voltage.

Generally, the higher the latitude, the greater the range (difference between maximum and minimum) in solar radiation received over the year and the greater the difference from season to season. The progressive decrease in the angle of solar illumination with increasing latitude reduces the average solar irradiance by an additional one-half. The solar radiation received at Earth's surface varies by time and latitude. The solar radiation per unit of surface area decreases with increasing latitude in each hemisphere, because the greater the latitude, the longer the distance through the atmosphere the Sun's rays must travel. Higher latitudes receive less solar radiation because the sun's rays stride the Earth's surface at a less direct angle. This spreads the same amount of solar energy over a larger area, resulting in lower temperatures. More solar radiation is received and absorbed near the equator than at the poles. The amount of solar radiation varies with latitude because of the curvature of the earth. The temperature decreases from the equator to the poles. Near the equator, the Sun's rays strike the Earth most directly, while at the poles the rays strike at a steep angle. This means that less solar radiation is absorbed per square cm (or inch) of surface area at higher latitudes than at lower latitudes, and that the tropics are warmer than the poles. Latitude, climate, and weather patterns are major factors that affect insolation the amount of solar radiation received on a given surface area during a specific amount of time. Locations in lower latitudes and in arid climates generally receive higher amounts of insolation than other locations. Because the Earth is a sphere, the surface gets much more intense sunlight (heat) at the equator than at the poles. During the equinox (the time of year when the amount of daylight and nighttime are approximately equal), the Sun passes directly overhead at noon on the equator. Latitude and geographical location: Solar irradiance is generally higher near the equator and decreases as you move closer to the poles. Regions closer to the equator receive more direct sunlight throughout the year, resulting in higher solar irradiance. The Equator, at 0° latitude, receives a maximum intensity of the sun's rays all year. As a result, areas near Earth's Equator experience relatively constant sunlight and little solstice variation. On an average those would be the poles. As you correctly pointed out, due to the tilt of the Earth's axis, there are large areas that receive very little and sometimes no sunlight at all and those change throughout the year. But on an average, poles are the ones that get the least amount of solar radiation. Duration of the day varies from place to place and season to season. It decides the amount of insolation received on the earth's surface. The longer the duration of the day, the greater is the amount of insolation received. The Earth spins on its axis once each day. Daytime is longer, the higher the amount of energy received by the Earth.

Most heat is transferred in the atmosphere by radiation and convection. Sunlight absorbed by Earth's surfaces is re-radiated as heat, warming the atmosphere from the bottom up. This heat is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, resulting in the greenhouse effect. There are 5 major factors affecting global air circulation: uneven heating of earth's surface, seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation, rotating of earth on its axis, properties of air and water and long term variation in the amount of solar energy striking the earth. The Earth's climate system depends entirely on the Sun for its energy. Solar radiation warms the atmosphere and is fundamental to atmospheric composition, while the distribution of solar heating across the planet produces global wind patterns and contributes to the formation of clouds, storms, and rainfall. Solar radiation is the energy emitted by the Sun through electromagnetic waves and life on Earth depends on it. In addition to determining atmospheric and climatologically dynamics and trends, it makes plant photosynthesis possible, among other processes. Solar radiation is radiant (electromagnetic) energy from the sun. It is important because it provides light and heat for the Earth and energy for photosynthesis. This radiant energy is necessary for the metabolism of the environment and its inhabitants. The rate of change in air pressure over distance is the pressure gradient. Pressure gradient forces act from high pressure to low pressure, causing wind movement. The only driver of atmospheric circulation is sunlight. Under the constraints of gravity, Archimedes' thrust and Coriolis' force due to the Earth's rotation, temperature differences between the equator and the poles cause air to circulate all around the Earth. Global atmospheric circulation creates winds across the planet and leads to areas of high rainfall, like the tropical rainforests, and areas of dry air, like deserts. Larger aerosol particles in the atmosphere interact with and absorb some of the radiation, causing the atmosphere to warm. The heat generated by this absorption is emitted as long wave infrared radiation, some of which radiates out into space.Solar radiation which travels to the Earth through space is absorbed, scattered or and re-emitted back to the Earth by atmospheric greenhouse gases. The relationship between greenhouse gases and solar radiation and solar energy absorbed at Earth's surface is radiated back into the atmosphere as heat. As the heat makes its way through the atmosphere and back out to space, greenhouse gases absorb much of it. Earth's greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere and warm the planet. The main gases responsible for the greenhouse effect include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and water vapor. Solar radiation is the energy emitted by the Sun through electromagnetic waves and life on Earth depends on it. In addition to determining atmospheric and climatologically dynamics and trends, it makes plant photosynthesis possible, among other processes. Human Activity Is the Cause of Increased Greenhouse Gas Concentrations. Over the last century, burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil has increased the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). This increase happens because the coal or oil burning process combines carbon with oxygen in the air to make CO2. The combination of oceanic and atmospheric circulation drives global climate by redistributing heat and moisture. Areas located near the tropics remain warm and relatively wet throughout the year. In temperate regions, variation in solar input drives seasonal changes.

In total approximately 70% of incoming radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and the Earth's surface while around 30% is reflected back to space and does not heat the surface. Some of this incoming radiation is reflected off clouds, some is absorbed by the atmosphere, and some passes through to the Earth's surface. Larger aerosol particles in the atmosphere interact with and absorb some of the radiation, causing the atmosphere to warm.Visible light rays and short infrared radiation pass through the atmosphere of earth. Infrared radiation absorbed by Earth's surface warms the surrounding air. Earth absorbs infrared radiation and converts it to thermal energy. As the surface absorbs heat from the sun, it becomes warmer than the surrounding atmosphere. Of the 340 watts per square meter of solar energy that falls on the Earth, 29% is reflected back into space, primarily by clouds, but also by other bright surfaces and the atmosphere itself. About 23% of incoming energy is absorbed in the atmosphere by atmospheric gases, dust, and other particles. Averaged over an entire year, approximately 342 watts of solar energy fall upon every square meter of Earth. This is a tremendous amount of energy 44 quadrillion (4.4 x 1016) watts of power to be exact. The 70 units of incoming solar radiation make it into Earth's atmosphere. This is equivalent to 240 watts per square meter (70% of 342 W/m2). The atmosphere and clouds absorb 19 units of this incoming solar radiation, leaving 51 units of solar radiation that is absorbed at Earth's surface. Of the remaining 70 percent, 23 percent of incoming solar radiation is absorbed in the atmosphere, either by water vapor, atmospheric particles, dust and ozone. The remaining 47 percent passes through the atmosphere and is absorbed in Earth's land and sea which makes up nearly 71 percent of the entire world.

Dr Gaurav H Tandon thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Since ASHRAE and H.C. Hottel are references, I think S.C.S.G is a reference too. Because the writer was talking about the correlations he used in his model and from where he got these correlations. Therefore, I couldn't figure out what was this (S.C.S.G) reference or what does stand for.

Shubham Gupta , Book by jhon Duffy, all equation has been given. may it will help you .

The obvious unintended consequence is that SRM would decrease the solar resource, hence make solar energy utilization less effective, even though this is precisely the most promising technology to replace carbon-based energy sources. Basically, this is a shot in our own foot, in my humble opinion.

At Earth's average distance from the Sun (about 150 million kilometers), the average intensity of solar energy reaching the top of the atmosphere directly facing the Sun is about 1,360 watts per square meter, according to measurements made by the most recent NASA satellite missions. About 23 percent of incoming solar energy is absorbed in the atmosphere by water vapor, dust, and ozone, and 48 percent passes through the atmosphere and is absorbed by the surface. Thus, about 71 percent of the total incoming solar energy is absorbed by the Earth system. Of the light that reaches Earth's surface, infrared radiation makes up 49.4% of while visible light provides 42.3%. Ultraviolet radiation makes up just over 8% of the total solar radiation. Each of these bands has a different impact on the environment. Clouds, aerosols, water vapor, and ozone directly absorb 23 percent of incoming solar energy. Evaporation and convection transfer 25 and 5 percent of incoming solar energy from the surface to the atmosphere. Absorption is the process by which "incident radiant energy is retained by a substance." In this case, the substance is the atmosphere. When the atmosphere absorbs energy, the result is an irreversible transformation of radiation into another form of energy.

I recommend ERA5-Land

I recommend hourly values from ERA5-Land

The equator receives the most direct sunlight because sunlight arrives at a perpendicular (90 degree) angle to the Earth. Sunlight rays are concentrated on smaller surface areas, causing warmer temperatures and climates. As incoming rays move further away from the equator, solar intensity decreases. This is because at the equator light from the sun travels in an almost perpendicular direction to the ground and as such, it experiences less energy loss as it travels in comparison with places that are at more of an angle. The two poles thus receive less solar energy than any other latitude.

The air mass coefficient defines the direct optical path length through the Earth's atmosphere, expressed as a ratio relative to the path length vertically upwards, i.e. at the zenith. The air mass coefficient can be used to help characterize the solar spectrum after solar radiation has traveled through the atmosphere. In total approximately 70% of incoming radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and the Earth's surface while around 30% is reflected back to space and does not heat the surface.

Laurence Shiva Sundar,

Please go through the link below which seems to be useful.

To convert monthly averaged surface solar radiation downwards (SSRD) measured in J/m^2 to global horizontal irradiance (GHI) in kWh/m^2/day, you can use the following steps:

Therefore, the formula to convert monthly averaged SSRD to GHI is:

GHI = (SSRD/3,600,000) x Days in Month

Average Daily GHI = GHI / Days in Month

Where:

SSRD is the monthly averaged surface solar radiation downwards in J/m^2 Days in Month is the number of days in the month (e.g., 30 or 31) GHI is the total energy in kWh/m^2 for the month Average Daily GHI is the average daily energy in kWh/m^2

Note that this conversion assumes that the SSRD is measured on a horizontal surface and that the GHI is also measured on a horizontal surface. If the SSRD is measured on an inclined surface, or if you need to convert to a different orientation or slope, further calculations may be required.

When the sun's rays strike Earth's surface near the equator, the incoming solar radiation is more direct. Therefore, the solar radiation is concentrated over a smaller surface area, causing warmer temperatures. The Sun does not heat all parts of the Earth to the same extent; the Equator receives more energy than the poles. This is because the Earth is round and spins leaning over in relation to the Sun. The sun's rays are strongest at the equator where the sun is most directly overhead and where UV rays must travel the shortest distance through the atmosphere. The Northern Hemisphere receives the maximum intensity of the sun's rays, while the angle of sunlight decreases in the Southern Hemisphere. Most of the energy in the Earth system comes from just a few sources: solar energy, gravity, radioactive decay, and the rotation of the Earth. Solar energy drives many surface processes such as winds, currents, the hydrologic cycle, and the overall climate system. The Earth absorbs most of the energy reaching its surface, a small fraction is reflected. In total approximately 70% of incoming radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and the Earth's surface while around 30% is reflected back to space and does not heat the surface. Due to the spherical shape of the Earth, sunlight falls on different parts at different angles. Direct and focused sun rays falls on the equator and hence, the regions here are hotter and warmer.

Scarlet Maguire The EasyLog USB Dataloggers are not intended for long-term external use, but they can endure some weather exposure. The dataloggers should be secured from direct sunshine and dampness by putting them in a protective housing or enclosure, according to the maker. Furthermore, the dataloggers must be put in a location where they will not be exposed to extreme temperatures, which could harm the device.

It is difficult to predict how well the dataloggers will work in your particular application because it is dependent on the specific circumstances under which they are used. Other researchers who have used comparable dataloggers in outdoor environments may be able to provide suggestions or insights. Alternatively, you may want to consider investing in dataloggers built especially for outdoor use, which may be more costly but will most likely provide greater dependability and longevity.