Soil Fertility - Science topic

Bacteria increase soil fertility through nutrient recycling such as carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus. Bacteria also help in the decomposition of dead organic matter and then give out simple compounds in the soil, which can be used up by plants. They increase soil fertility by incorporating air, minerals and nitrogenous compounds. They contribute in increasing plant growth by providing essential elements, minerals that plants cannot utilize by their Owen. Microorganisms decompose organic matter to simpler form that can be easily uptake by plants. Microorganisms are essential to soil formation and soil ecology because they control the flux of nutrients to plants promote nitrogen fixation, and promote soil detoxification of inorganic and naturally occurring organic pollutants. Two types of microorganisms present in the soil can increase its fertility. Decomposers and nitrogen-fixing bacteria are the two types of microorganisms that can improve soil fertility. Beneficial soil microbes perform fundamental functions such as nutrient cycling, breaking down crop residues, and stimulating plant growth. Microbes can make nutrients and minerals in the soil available to plants, produce hormones that spur growth, stimulate the plant immune system and trigger or dampen stress responses.

The rhizospheric bacteria have been shown to improve plant nutrient supply and soil health. Similarly, the input of nanoparticles (NPs) has a positive impact on rhizospheric microbes as well as plant growth with improved soil properties. Nanomaterials are also being specially tailored for their use in agriculture as nano-fertilizers, nano-pesticides, and nano-based biosensors, which is leading to their accumulation in the soil. The presence of ENMs considerably affects the soil microbiome, including the abundance and diversity of microbes. Soil microorganisms are responsible for most of the nutrient release from organic matter. When microorganisms decompose organic matter, they use the carbon and nutrients in the organic matter for their own growth. They release excess nutrients into the soil where they can be taken up by plants. Four common nanomaterials that are used to improve soil are carbon nanotube (CNTs), colloidal silica, laponite, and bentonite. Nanomaterials are also being specially tailored for their use in agriculture as nano-fertilizers, nano-pesticides, and nano-based biosensors, which is leading to their accumulation in the soil. The presence of ENMs considerably affects the soil microbiome, including the abundance and diversity of microbes. NPs, in general, show positive effects on microbes in lower concentrations; however, they inhibit microbial enzyme activity as well as microbial growth at elevated levels. Copper oxide nanoparticles cause an increase in the pH of soil which ultimately affects soil property. Uptake of Silver nanoparticles accumulated in soil by insects may also be influenced by the pH of the soil. In soil, nanomaterials (NMs) are reported to directly affect the functionality of soil microbes; as a result, they may promote plant growth by enhancing the physiochemical characteristics of the soil if the application procedure is optimized. The application of NMs as single carriers of agrochemicals may facilitate unregulated interaction of the NPs with soil components causing drastic modulations in the activity of soil microbiota and in some cases may also negatively impact soil fertility and therefore crop productivity.

Dr Ayeni Leye Samuel thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Microorganisms play a crucial role in maintaining healthy soil and biodiversity. They contribute to soil fertility through various mechanisms. In the rhizosphere, the area surrounding plant roots, microorganisms provide several benefits:

1. Nutrient Cycling: Rhizosphere microorganisms break down organic matter and release essential nutrients, making them available for plant uptake. They mineralize organic compounds, converting them into forms that plants can use.

2. Disease Suppression: Some rhizosphere microorganisms have the ability to suppress plant diseases by producing antimicrobial compounds or competing with pathogenic organisms for resources. They can protect plants from harmful pathogens.

3. Plant Growth Promotion: Rhizosphere microorganisms can stimulate plant growth by producing hormones, such as auxins, that promote root development and nutrient uptake. They may also enhance the availability of nutrients through processes like solubilization and mobilization.

4. Soil Structure Improvement: Certain rhizosphere microorganisms, such as mycorrhizal fungi, form symbiotic relationships with plant roots and improve soil structure. They create networks of tiny filaments that enhance soil aggregation, water infiltration, and nutrient exchange.

5. Biodiversity Support: The presence of diverse rhizosphere microorganisms contributes to overall soil biodiversity. This diversity enhances ecosystem resilience, nutrient cycling, and the ability to adapt to environmental changes.

In summary, rhizosphere microorganisms play a vital role in soil fertility by facilitating nutrient cycling, disease suppression, plant growth promotion, soil structure improvement, and supporting overall biodiversity.

Soil microorganisms are responsible for most of the nutrient release from organic matter. When microorganisms decompose organic matter, they use the carbon and nutrients in the organic matter for their own growth. They release excess nutrients into the soil where they can be taken up by plants. Beneficial soil microbes perform fundamental functions such as nutrient cycling, breaking down crop residues, and stimulating plant growth. Microorganisms regulate soil properties and fertility through different pathways: (1) microbes can activate soil nutrients and promote their availability; (2) nitrogen-fixing bacteria improve soil fertility by transforming the nitrogen elements; (3) the extracellular secretions of microbes can enhance the stability of soil properties. Microorganisms help in cleaning up the environment. They decompose dead and decaying matter from plants and animals; convert them into simpler substances which are later used up by other plants and animals. Thus, they are used to breakdown harmful substances. Microbes thrive under no-till conditions and winter cover crops. Cover crops and manure can be used to feed soil microbes and recycle soil nutrients. As soil microbes decompose organic residues, they slowly release nutrients back into the soil for the winter cover crops or for the preceding crop. They increase soil fertility by incorporating air, minerals and nitrogenous compounds. They contribute in increasing plant growth by providing essential elements, minerals that plants cannot utilize by their Owen. Microorganisms decompose organic matter to simpler form that can be easily uptake by plants. Microorganisms play a crucial role in nutrient cycling in soil. The composition and activity of microbiota impact the soil quality status, health, and nutrient enrichment. Microbes are essential for nutrient mobility and absorption. Through their varied functions, they stimulate plant growth and reduce diseases.

If the soil does not have microorganisms,the following happens, supply of soil nitrogen will be deficient because soil bacteria such pseudomonas,nitrosomonas and nitrobacter are absent,also, rhizobium and soil fungi responsible for nitrogen fixation and mycorrhiza to supply soil P are absent. Furthermore,the decomposition of the plant and animals remains will be difficult,thereby, reducing soil organic matter. The roles of microorganisms in soil formation and fertility can't be overemphasized because soil they encourage decomposition of plant and remains to increase soil organic matter and by extension influences soil nutrients supply,regulates soil pH , buffering capacity of soils,humification of soil,bulk density and reduction of soil temperature Besides, the extent of soil horizon differentiation is determined by activities of soil microorganisms starting from elluviation process starting from addition of organic matter and determines the dark black soil colour which contains nutrients, good soil structure, reduction of soil temperature and bulk density which are indicators of good soil fertility.Finally,the roles of microorganisms in breaking down the pollution and toxicity of applied agrochemicals in the soils are significant because they help to maintain good soil health which is important indicator for soil fertility maintenance

Dr Maftuna Karimboeva thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Soil organic matter (SOM) has many functions, the relative importance of which differs with soil type, climate, and land use. Commonly the most important function of OM in soil is as a reserve of the nitrogen and other nutrients required by plants, and ultimately by the human population. Soil organic matter is a primary source of carbon (C) which gives energy and nutrients to soil organisms. This supports soil functionality because it improves the activity of microorganisms in the soil and it can enhance biodiversity. Soil organic carbon not only improves soil nutrient bioavailability but also affects soil fertility by various other mechanisms and is of central importance for the global C-cycle, which may strongly affect atmospheric CO2-concentrations. Organic carbon serves as a reservoir for essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur, making them available to plants over time. It enhances soil structure, improving water retention and aeration, which is vital for root growth and soil microorganism activity. More organic matter leads to more microorganisms and leads to more available minerals and nutrients. Organic matter reduces the chance of soil erosion because it acts as glue, sometimes reducing it up to 20 or 30 percent for only having 1 to 3 percent of organic matter. Organic matter contributes to nutrient retention and turnover, soil structure, moisture retention and availability, degradation of pollutants, and carbon sequestration. When the amount of carbon in the soil is increased it reduces the amount of carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere which provides a better climatic condition for plant growth. An increase in soil organic carbon results in more stable carbon cycle and enhanced overall agricultural productivity. Soil microorganisms are responsible for most of the nutrient release from organic matter. When microorganisms decompose organic matter, they use the carbon and nutrients in the organic matter for their own growth. They release excess nutrients into the soil where they can be taken up by plants. Living organisms are very important for improving soil fertility because when a living organism dies the organic matter of its body gets decomposed by the decomposers hence it provides humus to the soil. Humus is the organic matter present in the soil which in the course of time gets converted into humus. Adding organic matter improves soils high in clay or sand. Soils high in OM retain more moisture, have a crumbly structure that resists soil compaction, and contain a reservoir of nutrients that are slowly released over time. OM improves soil aeration, water drainage, root growth, and biological activity.

Dr Rashi Sahay thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Dear Dr. Suneel Kumar

Bonsoir!

Le biochar ou ce qui peut l’être améliore la dite production végétale.

Microorganisms have the potential to improve plant growth under abiotic stress conditions by promoting the production of low-molecular-weight osmolytes, such as glycinebetaine, proline, and other amino acids, mineral phosphate solubilization, nitrogen fixation, organic acids, and producing key enzymes. Several root associated microbes produce cytokinin (CK), gibberellin (GB), indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), salicylic acid (SA), and abscisic acid (ABA), which helps plants to cope with stress by improving its antioxidant potential, by up-regulation of the antioxidant system and by accumulation of compatible osmolytes. These stress-tolerant microorganisms play an effective role against abiotic stresses by enhancing the antioxidant potential, improving nutrient acquisition, regulating the production of plant hormones, ACC deaminase, siderophore and exopolysaccharides and accumulating osmoprotectants and, thus, stimulating plant. Microbes have the potential to provide manifold attributes of the system, embracing indispensable purposes as follows: (1) seed germination, growth, and development through hormone production; (2) nutrient supply like nitrogen fixation, mobilizing phosphorus, and minerals availability. Microorganisms can convert toxic elements into water, carbon dioxide, and other less toxic compounds, which are further degraded by other microbes in a process referred to as mineralization. Living organisms show responses to changes in abiotic factors in several ways depending on the duration of unfavorable conditions. Organisms show responses such as migration and suspension if unfavorable conditions are present for a shorter duration. Without microbes, the earth would be filled with corpses. Bacteria break down (or decompose) dead organisms, animal waste, and plant litter to obtain nutrients. Microorganisms help in cleaning up the environment. They decompose dead and decaying matter from plants and animals; convert them into simpler substances which are later used up by other plants and animals. Thus, they are used to breakdown harmful substances. Microorganisms have several vital roles in ecosystems: decomposition, oxygen production, evolution, and symbiotic relationships. Decomposition is where dead animal or plant matter is broken down into more basic molecules. This process only happens because of the microorganisms that find their way into the dead matter. Soil microorganisms are responsible for most of the nutrient release from organic matter. When microorganisms decompose organic matter, they use the carbon and nutrients in the organic matter for their own growth. They release excess nutrients into the soil where they can be taken up by plants. Microbes can make nutrients and minerals in the soil available to plants, produce hormones that spur growth, stimulate the plant immune system and trigger or dampen stress responses. In general a more diverse soil microbiome results in fewer plant diseases and higher yield.

Dear, Dr Baba Sule Salifu; Fertility of the soil and a specific plant (for example, fonio) is associated with a synergistic and antagonistic process in the rhizosphere environment. Therefore, the fonio plant depends on environmental components such as; It needs moisture, heat and millet-friendly soil and the like. As Dr. (Курвантаев Рахмон) said; There is a correlation between the physical and chemical components of the soil.

Excessive fertilizer application aggravates the decline of soil organic matter and fertility and accelerates soil acidification. The diversity of microorganism species decreases. The excessive fertilizers reduced aerobic and anaerobic bacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizae fungi etc.

Following are the reason.

1. When ploughing and tilling through the fields, the plants in the top layer of the fields rot and decompose, producing and releasing carbon dioxide and methane in the process.

2. If ploughing is manually then it is dangerous to human as well as animal. sometime snakes are also found in the field.

3. Relying on tractors to bear oil pressure during transport is extremely hazardous. Escaping hydraulic oil is highly dangerous and will easily.

4. If ploughing by tractor the hydraulic/mechanical operation are there.

5. Harmful dust generates in ploughing operation; PPE/dust mask must be used.

6. Cylinder locks are a safe and easy way to prevent hydraulic oil accidents or the accidental lowering of plow equipment, both of which often lead to serious personal injury.

Biodiversity plays an important role in regulating the climate, thus making a key contribution to climate change mitigation and adaptation. At the same time, climate change affects ecosystem dynamics and the distribution and abundance of species and habitats.Ecosystems contribute to mitigation because of their capacity to remove carbon from the atmosphere and to store it. Ecosystems contribute also to adaptation because they provide services that can help people adapt to both current climate hazards and future climate change. A changing climate has the potential to alter many of the ecosystem services that are provided by and support agricultural and forestry systems, including food production, pollination services, pest control, and water quality regulation. Forest ecosystems play a critical role in the carbon cycle, helping to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store it in roots, soil, and the forest floor. But climate-driven increases in wildfires, flooding, pests, and diseases can limit the ability of an ecosystem to provide this important service. Nature provides us with water, clean air and food, and raw materials for medicines, industry and buildings. Our crops rely on insect pollination and the complex biological processes that create soil. Enjoying parks, landscapes and wildlife improves our health and well-being. The most robust approach to helping fish, wildlife, and plants adapt to climate change is to conserve enough variety and sufficient habitat to sustain diverse and healthy populations. The most vulnerable ecosystems include coastal ecosystems, alpine areas, rainforests, fragmented terrestrial ecosystems and areas vulnerable to fire or low freshwater availability. It controls essential ecological processes and promotes lives. Involved in the recycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic components. It helps in maintaining the usual flow of energy in an ecosystem including- Carbon Cycle, Energy Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle, Oxygen Cycle, and Water Cycle. The four components of climate change adaptation are addressing what makes human and non-human populations vulnerable, improving the ability to respond to climate issues, managing the risk of climate change, and directly confronting climate change through collective and individual action. When microorganisms decompose organic matter, they use the carbon and nutrients in the organic matter for their own growth. They release excess nutrients into the soil where they can be taken up by plants. The main effects of the presence of microorganisms in the soil are: Improved plant nutrition. Microorganisms increase the source of nitrogen in the soil, or they can supply it directly to the plant, as they have the ability to take and set nitrogen from the atmosphere. Almost every chemical reaction in soil is done by microbes and makes nutrients available for plant and crops uptake. They play an active role in soil fertility hence all of the bio-geochemical cycle mediated by microbes such as nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon cycle etc. Within food plant cropping systems, microorganisms provide vital functions and ecosystem services, such as biological pest and disease control, promotion of plant growth and crop quality, and biodegradation of organic matter and pollutants. They increase soil fertility by incorporating air, minerals and nitrogenous compounds. They contribute in increasing plant growth by providing essential elements, minerals that plants cannot utilize by their Owen. Microorganisms decompose organic matter to simpler form that can be easily uptake by plants. Microbes can make nutrients and minerals in the soil available to plants, produce hormones that spur growth, stimulate the plant immune system and trigger or dampen stress responses.

Here are some of the ways in which Rhizobium and blue-green algae increase soil fertility: Fixing nitrogen: Both Rhizobium and blue-green algae can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere. This is an important process because it adds nitrogen to the soil, which is a nutrient that is essential for plant growth. Rhizobium is a bacterium found in soil that helps in fixing nitrogen in leguminous plants. It attaches to the roots of the leguminous plant and produces nodules. These nodules fix atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into ammonia that can be used by the plant for its growth and development. Rhizobia are found in the soil and after infection, produce nodules in the legume where they fix nitrogen gas (N2) from the atmosphere turning it into a more readily useful form of nitrogen. From here, the nitrogen is exported from the nodules and used for growth in the legume. The organisms like blue-green algae and bacteria are extensively used to fix nitrogen in the soil for agriculture. This will improve the fertility of the soil. Bacteria help fix the atmospheric nitrogen with the help of nitrogenase enzyme and increase the nitrogen content in the soil. It is referred to as Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria. As, Nostoc, Anabaena, Azotobacter, etc. Cyanobacteria which is also called blue green algae is a perfect example of a bio-fertilizer. They work as both nitrogen fixing bacteria and photosynthetic bacteria. Carbon and nitrogen sources are essential for the soil because they help to enhance the soil productivity. Bacteria help in fixing atmospheric nitrogen and increase the nitrogen available for the plants. Bacteria decompose the decaying matter and increase the nutrient content. They also help in improving the texture and quality of the soil. Blue green Algae fix nitrogen directly from atmosphere, and increase the fertility of soil. Free-living nitrogen fixing blue green algae (Cyanobacteria): Anabeaena, Nostoc, Cylindrospermum, Trichodesmium, and Aulosira are the most common blue green algae that help in nitrogen fixation. Some of the blue-green algae used in rice fields to increase fertility include: Anabaena azollae: This alga is a symbiotic partner of the water fern Azolla. Together, they form a floating mat that can cover large areas of water. Blue green algae play an important role in maintenance and build-up of soil fertility, consequently increasing rice growth and yield as a natural biofertilizer. They are photosynthetic nitrogen fixers and are free living. Increase in water-holding capacity through their jelly structure. Azolla pinnata is especially grown in wet soil in rice fields during rice cultivation to generate a good amount of nitrogen rich fertilizer. The association of Azolla pinnata along with the blue green algae called Anabaena provides great importance to agriculture.

Soil holds the largest portion of active carbon on earth. Plants take carbon from the air and convert it to plant tissue, some of which returns to the soil as plant residue. Carbon is critical to soil function and productivity, and a main component of and contributor to healthy soil conditions. The work is important because soil carbon is a major reservoir in the global carbon cycle, storing about three times the amount of carbon contained in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Some soil processes promote carbon storage, locking it away in stable forms, resistant to decay. Microbes are critical in the process of breaking down and transforming dead organic material into forms that can be reused by other organisms. This is why the microbial enzyme systems involved are viewed as key 'engines' that drives the Earth's biogeochemical cycles.Upon the death of plants and animals, microbes assume a dominant role in carbon cycle. The dead tissues are degraded and transformed into microbial cells and humus or soil organic fraction. Further decomposition of these materials leads to the production of CO2 and once again it is recycled.Microbes thrive under no-till conditions and winter cover crops. Cover crops and manure can be used to feed soil microbes and recycle soil nutrients. As soil microbes decompose organic residues, they slowly release nutrients back into the soil for the winter cover crops or for the preceding crop. Decomposers break down organic carbon compounds and release carbon back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide where is can again be used by plants and other photosynthetic organisms to produce organic carbon. Microbes are critical in the process of breaking down and transforming dead organic material into forms that can be reused by other organisms. This is why the microbial enzyme systems involved are viewed as key 'engines' that drive the Earth's biogeochemical cycles. Microorganisms and fungi break down wood and return carbon to the biogeochemical cycles. If these organisms become absent, carbon would accumulate in the wood, where it could not be recycled into the environment. The fixation of nitrogen is dependent on microorganisms mostly through biological nitrogen fixation. Soil bacteria perform recycling of soil organic matter through different processes, and as a result they produce and release into the soil inorganic molecules (PO 4 3 − , CO2) that can be consumed by plants and microorganisms to grow and perform their functions. During the decomposition process, microorganisms convert the carbon structures of fresh residues into transformed carbon products in the soil. There are many different types of organic molecules in soil. Some are simple molecules that have been synthesized directly from plants or other living organisms. Plants absorb carbon dioxide during photosynthesis and much of this carbon dioxide is then stored in roots, permafrost, grasslands, and forests. Plants and the soil then release carbon dioxide when they decay. Other organisms also release carbon dioxide as they live and die. Soil microorganisms decompose these materials into inorganic nutrients and humus and are termed as mineralization and humification, respectively. The released nutrients further get chelated as organo-metal-complexes or leached through the soil or immobilized or become available to the plants. Bacteria sustain life by their ability to decompose plant and animal bodies, replenishing the limited amount of carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis. As a result, they act as carbon decomposers in the carbon cycle. Bacteria are mostly decomposers in the carbon cycle.

The association with Rhizobium bacteria and other organisms that favor the formation and increase in the concentration of glomalin can make millet potentially conducive to this task.

Blue green algae are important in agriculture as they can metabolize molecular nitrogen, solubilise insoluble phosphates, improve physical and chemical nature of soil and also add organic matter to the soil. They also produce certain Plant Growth Regulators which has a positive effect on crop growth and crop yield. Blue green algae fix Nitrogen directly from air to enhance fertility of soil. Despite their name, blue-green algae are a type of bacteria. They are a naturally occurring component of freshwater environments. In fact, they are an essential part of a healthy body of water, as they produce oxygen and are themselves a source of food for certain aquatic animals. Blue green algae fix the atmospheric nitrogen which increases the amount of nitrogen in soil hence fertility and bacteria digest the waste materials which act as manure. Some of the examples of blue green algae are Anabaena and Nostoc. As it is used for fixing atmospheric nitrogen in plants with the absence of end symbiotic bacteria, it is referred to as a biofertilizer which helps plants to make use of ammonia for its growth and development. Nitrogen fixing blue green algae or cyanobacteria converts nitrogen into nitrites and nitrates in the soil that can be then absorbed by the plants. Cyanobacteria which is also called blue green algae is a perfect example of a bio-fertilizer. They work as both nitrogen fixing bacteria and photosynthetic bacteria. Carbon and nitrogen sources are essential for the soil because they help to enhance the soil productivity. The soil microbes mediate the biogeochemical cycling for soil mineral nutrients availability such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur, which are the major growth promoting nutrients to the plants. The microbes use organic carbon as their energy source to drive the recycling process. Soil microorganisms are responsible for most of the nutrient release from organic matter. When microorganisms decompose organic matter, they use the carbon and nutrients in the organic matter for their own growth. They release excess nutrients into the soil where they can be taken up by plants. Microorganisms are responsible for the degradation of organic matter, which controls the release of plant nutrients, but is also important for the maintenance of soil structure and sustainability of soil quality for plant growth. Due to their close proximity to plant roots, soil microbes significantly affect soil and crop health. Some of the activities they perform include nitrogen-fixation, phosphorus solubilization, suppression of pests and pathogens, improvement of plant stress, and decomposition that leads to soil aggregation. As plant material and animal wastes are decomposed by micro-organisms, they release inorganic nutrients to the soil solution, a process referred to as mineralization. Those nutrients may then undergo further transformations which may be aided or enabled by soil micro-organisms.

Nitrogen uptake refers to the process by which plants absorb and assimilate nitrogen from the soil or other sources into their tissues.

Microbes such as bacteria, fungus, and archaea help with soil fertility and nutrient cycling. Decomposition is the process by which they break down organic matter, such as dead plants and animals, into simpler components. This breakdown releases vital nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium, allowing plants to absorb them. Furthermore, certain microbes form symbiotic partnerships with plants. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, for example, create nodules on the roots of leguminous plants and transform atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use. This procedure adds nitrogen to the soil, encouraging plant development and increasing agricultural output. In addition, some bacteria operate as biocontrol agents, fighting plant diseases and supporting plant health. They have the ability to inhibit the growth of hazardous organisms, decreasing the need for synthetic pesticides.

The carbon cycle is the movement of carbon through different reservoirs, such as the atmosphere, oceans, land, and living creatures. Microbes, particularly bacteria, are important in numerous stages of the carbon cycle:

a. Decomposition: Bacteria use decomposition to break down organic stuff such as dead plants and animal excrement. Carbon molecules are broken down during this process, releasing carbon dioxide (CO2) into the environment. This decomposition helps to recycle carbon naturally in ecosystems.

b. Carbon Sequestration: Some bacteria help to sequester carbon by converting atmospheric CO2 into organic carbon molecules, which are then stored in soil. This process, known as carbon fixation, reduces CO2 levels in the atmosphere and promotes long-term carbon storage.

c. Methane Production and Consumption: Methane (CH4), a strong greenhouse gas, is produced and consumed by some bacteria. Methanogenic bacteria produce CH4 in anaerobic (oxygen-free) environments such as marshes and rice paddies. Methanotrophs are bacteria that consume methane and oxidize it, preventing it from being released into the atmosphere.

In conclusion, bacteria and other microorganisms are critical for soil fertility and nutrient cycling, enabling healthy plant growth and increasing agricultural yield. Furthermore, they are important players in the carbon cycle, regulating carbon storage, release, and greenhouse gas dynamics in ecosystems.

Dr Paul Reed Hepperly thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Dr Amiran Khabidovich Zanilov thank you for your contribution to the discussion

At higher latitudes, the angle of solar radiation is smaller, causing energy to be spread over a larger area of the surface and cooler temperatures. In contrast, those in higher latitudes receive sunlight that is spread over a larger area and that has taken a longer path through the atmosphere. As a result, these higher latitudes receive less solar energy. he farther north or south you are from the Equator, the more radiation you will receive. This is a result of the Earth's magnetic field deflecting some of the cosmic radiation away from the equator and toward the North and South poles. The angle of sunlight hitting the equator is more direct than it is at the poles, so the poles receive less direct sunlight. The specific north to south grid positions on earth ranging from 0° at the equator to 90° at the poles and lower latitudes around the equator get the most sunlight, and as latitude increases temperature decreases. At the Equator there is a year round gain of Insulation and this region gains the most Insolation of all of the locations on the globe.

Soil provides the structural support to plants used in agriculture and is also their source of water and nutrients. Soils vary greatly in their chemical and physical properties. Processes such as leaching, weathering and microbial activity combine to make a whole range of different soil types. Among features of climate, temperature and rainfall are the ones that affect the soil fertility. Crops yield obtained from fields depends on rainfall and temperature. Greenhouse gases have a great impact on climate which in turn has an effect on temperature and rainfall. Soil fertility is one of the most important soil characteristics for crop growth. Crops require nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other nutrients at the right levels to grow properly and yield well. Fertile soils retain moderate to high levels of the nutrients needed for plant growth and good yield. Farmers add numerous soil amendments to enhance soil fertility, including inorganic chemical fertilizers and organic sources of nutrients, such as manure or compost, often resulting in surplus quantities of primary macronutrients. Nutrients can be replenished in the ways: Fertilizers and manures contain plant nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, etc. So, when fertilizers and manures are added to the soil in the fields, then the soil gets enriched with nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, etc. Farmers may apply commercial fertilizers, manure, soil amendments, or organic-by-products to provide the nutrients plants need.Manures and fertilizers help in increasing the fertility of the soil. Repeatedly growing plants on the same soil, leads the soil to become deficient in nutrients. So, it is mandatory to add nutrients into the soil.

Organic matter contributes to nutrient retention and turnover, soil structure, moisture retention and availability, degradation of pollutants, and carbon sequestration. Such soil fertility management practices include the use of fertilizers, organic inputs, crop rotation with legumes and the use of improved germplasm, combined with the knowledge on how to adapt these practices to local conditions. Soil organic carbon not only improves soil nutrient bioavailability but also affects soil fertility by various other mechanisms and is of central importance for the global C-cycle, which may strongly affect atmospheric CO2-concentrations. Organic matter plays a significant role in crop production and soil health by improving physical, chemical, and biological functions in the soil. Increasing levels of organic matter aid in soil structure, water-holding capacity, nutrient mineralization, biological activity, and water and air infiltration rates. Soil fertility can be increased by altering the pH and air content of the soil and by the addition of fertilizers to the soil. Nutrients can be replenished in the following ways: Fertilizers and manures contain plant nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, etc. So, when fertilizers and manures are added to the soil in the fields, then the soil gets enriched with nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, etc.

Organic matter improves soil structure, which results in increased water infiltration following rains and increased water-holding capacity of the soil; it also enhances root growth into more permeable soil. This results in better plant health and allows more movement of mobile nutrients to the root. An integrated soil fertility management aims at maximizing the efficiency of the agronomic use of nutrients and improving crop productivity. This can be achieved through the use of grain legumes, which enhance soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation, and the application of chemical fertilizers. Organic matter includes any plant or animal material that returns to the soil and goes through the decomposition process. In addition to providing nutrients and habitat to organisms living in the soil, organic matter also binds soil particles into aggregates and improves the water holding capacity of soil. Organic matter is an important source of nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur. These nutrients become available as the organic matter is decomposed by microorganisms. Because it takes time for this breakdown to occur, organic matter provides a slow release form of nutrients. Thus soil organic matter comprises all of the organic matter in the soil exclusive of the material that has not decayed. An important property of soil organic matter is that it improves the capacity of a soil to hold water and nutrients, and allows their slow release, thereby improving the conditions for plant growth. Organic matter plays a significant role in crop production and soil health by improving physical, chemical, and biological functions in the soil. Increasing levels of organic matter aid in soil structure, water-holding capacity, nutrient mineralization, biological activity, and water and air infiltration rates.

Soil carbon provides a source of nutrients through mineralization, helps to aggregate soil particles to provide resilience to physical degradation, increases microbial activity, increases water storage and availability to plants, and protects soil from erosion. Soil organic matter significantly improves the soil's capacity to store and supply essential nutrients and to retain toxic elements. It allows the soil to cope with changes in soil acidity, and helps soil minerals to decompose faster. As well as reducing the amount of carbon in the atmosphere, soil carbon sequestration can also improve soil health and its ability to provide vital ecosystem services, such as providing a medium for plant growth, recycling organic wastes and nutrients, modifying the atmosphere, providing a habitat for soil organisms. Soil organic carbon is a component of soil organic matter. Organic matter is primarily made up of carbon (58%), with the remaining mass consisting of water and other nutrients such as nitrogen and potassium. Bacteria change the soil environment so that certain plant species can exist and proliferate. Where new soil is forming, certain photosynthetic bacteria start to colonize the soil, recycling nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, and other soil nutrients to produce the first organic matter. They stimulate the growth and development of plants by enhancing the secretion of growth-promoting substances. These also increase the nutrient availability to the plants, especially the roots by manifolds. In this way they help to increase the fertility of the soil

Microorganisms are essential to soil formation and soil ecology because they control the flux of nutrients to plants promote nitrogen fixation, and promote soil detoxification of inorganic and naturally occurring organic pollutants. Soil bacteria form micro aggregates in the soil by binding soil particles together with their secretions. These micro aggregates are like the building blocks for improving soil structure. Improved soil structure increases water infiltration and increases water holding capacity of the soil. Mycorrhizae are the symbiotic fungi that reside in roots of higher plants and increase soil fertility by nitrogen fixation. Rhizobium is an example of a symbiotic bacterium that attaches to the roots of leguminous plants and it increases soil fertility by converting atmospheric nitrogen into organic compounds. To access these nutrients, plants are dependent on the growth of soil microbes such as bacteria and fungi, which possess the metabolic machinery to depolymerize and mineralize organic forms of N, P, and S. Both plants and microorganisms obtain their nutrients from soil and change soil properties by organic litter deposition and metabolic activities, respectively. Microorganisms have a range of direct effects on plants through, e.g., manipulation of hormone signaling and protection against pathogens. Microorganisms are responsible for the degradation of organic matter, which controls the release of plant nutrients, but is also important for the maintenance of soil structure and sustainability of soil quality for plant growth.

Beneficial soil microbes perform fundamental functions such as nutrient cycling, breaking down crop residues, and stimulating plant growth. While the role of microbes to maintain soil health and contribute to crop performance is clear, the soil biological component is extremely difficult to observe and manage. Microorganisms from plant roots are versatile in solubilizing, mobilizing, and transforming nutrients when compared with soil-producing bulk. Microorganisms secrete volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that have a beneficial effect on plant growth and development. Both plants and microorganisms obtain their nutrients from soil and change soil properties by organic litter deposition and metabolic activities, respectively. Microorganisms have a range of direct effects on plants through, e.g., manipulation of hormone signaling and protection against pathogens. Microbes can make nutrients and minerals in the soil available to plants, produce hormones that spur growth, stimulate the plant immune system and trigger or dampen stress responses. In general a more diverse soil microbiome results in fewer plant diseases and higher yield. Such soil fertility management practices include the use of fertilizers, organic inputs, crop rotation with legumes and the use of improved germplasm, combined with the knowledge on how to adapt these practices to local conditions. Organic ways such as crop rotation, bush fallowing, no-till farming, growing cover crops, use of manures, weed control, etc. These are some of the organic measures that are used to preserve the fertility of the soil. Also called mulching, it consists of covering the ground using leaves or other organic material.

Soil bacteria form micro aggregates in the soil by binding soil particles together with their secretions. These micro aggregates are like the building blocks for improving soil structure. Improved soil structure increases water infiltration and increases water holding capacity of the soil. Microbes help the break down organic matter from dead plants and animals and incorporate it into the soil, which increases the soil's organic content, improves soil structure, and helps plants thrive. The role of soil microbes is of high interest, since they are responsible for most biological transformations and drive the development of stable and labile pools of carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and other nutrients, which facilitate the subsequent establishment of plant communities. Soil microorganisms are responsible for most of the nutrient release from organic matter. When microorganisms decompose organic matter, they use the carbon and nutrients in the organic matter for their own growth. They release excess nutrients into the soil where they can be taken up by plants. Microbes can make nutrients and minerals in the soil available to plants, produce hormones that spur growth, stimulate the plant immune system and trigger or dampen stress responses. In general a more diverse soil micro biome results in fewer plant diseases and higher yield. Bacteria are the crucial workforce of soils. They are the final stage of breaking down nutrients and releasing them to the root zone for the plant. In fact, the Food and Agriculture Organization once said Bacteria may well be the most valuable of life forms in the soil. Microorganisms have been an integral part of soil since ever earth formed. They have the capability to turn soil into waste land and waste land into productive soil. They increase soil fertility by incorporating air, minerals and nitrogenous compounds. Microorganisms are responsible for the degradation of organic matter, which controls the release of plant nutrients, but is also important for the maintenance of soil structure and sustainability of soil quality for plant growth. Beneficial soil microbes perform fundamental functions such as nutrient cycling, breaking down crop residues, and stimulating plant growth. While the role of microbes to maintain soil health and contribute to crop performance is clear, the soil biological component is extremely difficult to observe and manage. The actions of soil organisms are extremely important for maintaining healthy soils. These organisms can change the physical organization of soil by creating burrows, can add nutrients to the soil through the breakdown of dead leaves, and can help to control the populations of other soil organisms. Microorganisms are responsible for the degradation of organic matter, which controls the release of plant nutrients, but is also important for the maintenance of soil structure and sustainability of soil quality for plant growth.

Also consider determining some biological soil quality indices such as microbial biomass carbon, soil basal respiration, and metabolic and microbial quotients to better understand your soil health and fertility status.

Good Luck!

Soil fertility as the ability of the soil to provide an atmosphere that is in favour of plant growth. It refers to the soil's ability to support plant growth and maximize crop yield. This can be improved by applying organic and inorganic fertilizers to the soil. Farmers use traditional conservation methods like legumes, crop rotation, cover crops, fallow and agroforestry in addition to applying manure, ash, mineral fertilizers and concoctions to improve soil fertility. Loamy-textured soils are commonly described as medium textured with functionally-equal contributions of sand, silt, and clay. These medium-textured soils are often considered ideal for agriculture as they are easily cultivated by farmers and can be highly productive for crop growth. Soil provides a host of crucial services for both people and the planet. Soil puts food on our plates, purifies our water, protects us against flooding and combats drought. It's also key to tackling climate change as it captures and stores vast amounts of carbon. There is no food security without healthy soils. Soil is an essential part of successful farming and the original source of nutrients used in crop growing. The nutrients transfer from the soil into plants which make food healthier. Healthy soil produces the most nutritious and most abundant food supply. Soils offer plants physical support, air, water, temperature moderation, nutrients, and protection from toxins. Soils provide readily available nutrients to plants and animals by converting dead organic matter into various nutrient forms. Fertile soil has the following characteristics: It is rich in nutrients necessary for basic plant nourishment. This includes nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. It consists of adequate minerals such as boron, chlorine, cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, magnesium, molybdenum, sulphur and zinc. Alluvial soil is the most widely spread and important soil. In fact, the entire northern plains are made of alluvial soil. Alluvial soils as a whole are very fertile. Due to its high fertility, regions of alluvial soils are intensively cultivated and densely populated. A fertile soil also provides essential nutrients for plant growth, to produce healthy food with all the necessary nutrients needed for human health. Among features of climate, temperature and rainfall are the ones that affect the soil fertility. Crops yield obtained from fields depends on rainfall and temperature. Greenhouse gases have a great impact on climate which in turn has an effect on temperature and rainfall. An integrated soil fertility management aims at maximizing the efficiency of the agronomic use of nutrients and improving crop productivity. This can be achieved through the use of grain legumes, which enhance soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation, and the application of chemical fertilizers. Porous loamy soils are the richest of all, laced with organic matter which retains water and provides the nutrients needed by crops.

Soil pH helps in maintaining the nutrient availability of the soil. A pH range between 5.5-7 is optimum for soil fertility. Land fertility is proportional to the amount of humus present. Humus contains nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, necessary for most plants. Humus increases soil fertility, creating an ideal microclimate for crop development with a favorable temperature, adequate moisture, and air. India has the most arable land in the world followed by the United States, Russia, China and Brazil. India and the United States account for roughly 22% of the world's arable land. Alluvial soil is the most fertile soil, followed by black soil, red soil, laterite soil, and desert soil. Its fertility depends on its minerals and organic content. Soil fertility can be further improved by incorporating cover crops that add organic matter to the soil, which leads to improved soil structure and promotes a healthy, fertile soil; by using green manure or growing legumes to fix nitrogen from the air through the process of biological nitrogen fixation; by micro-dose. The relief features, parent material, climate, vegetation, and other life-forms, as well as time apart from human activities, are the major factors responsible for the formation of soil.

Soil microorganisms are responsible for most of the nutrient release from organic matter. When microorganisms decompose organic matter, they use the carbon and nutrients in the organic matter for their own growth. They release excess nutrients into the soil where they can be taken up by plants. Microorganisms like bacteria and fungi, act as decomposers as they break down the dead and decaying organisms into simpler nutrients that mix with the soil. These nutrients are absorbed by plants during photosynthesis. Microorganisms have several vital roles in ecosystems: decomposition, oxygen production, evolution, and symbiotic relationships. Decomposition is where dead animal or plant matter is broken down into more basic molecules. Microorganisms increase the source of nitrogen in the soil, or they can supply it directly to the plant, as they have the ability to take and set nitrogen from the atmosphere. Microorganisms, is an increase in the bioavailability of phosphorus in the soil. The role of soil microbes is of high interest, since they are responsible for most biological transformations and drive the development of stable and labile pools of carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and other nutrients, which facilitate the subsequent establishment of plant communities. Due to their close proximity to plant roots, soil microbes significantly affect soil and crop health. Some of the activities they perform include nitrogen-fixation, phosphorus solubilization, suppression of pests and pathogens, improvement of plant stress, and decomposition that leads to soil aggregation. As microorganisms help break down organic matter, they release essential nutrients and carbon dioxide into the soil, fix nitrogen and help transform nutrients into mineral forms that plants can use through a process is mineralization. Microbial communities make the essential elements of oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur available for other life on our planet. Without microbial decomposer communities, life would be smothered in dead organisms. Soil microorganisms are responsible for most of the nutrient release from organic matter. When microorganisms decompose organic matter, they use the carbon and nutrients in the organic matter for their own growth. They release excess nutrients into the soil where they can be taken up by plants. Microbes can make nutrients and minerals in the soil available to plants, produce hormones that spur growth, stimulate the plant immune system and trigger or dampen stress responses. In general a more diverse soil microbiome results in fewer plant diseases and higher yield. Beneficial soil microbes perform fundamental functions such as nutrient cycling, breaking down crop residues, and stimulating plant growth. While the role of microbes to maintain soil health and contribute to crop performance is clear, the soil biological component is extremely difficult to observe and manage. Rhizobium is an example of a symbiotic bacterium that attaches to the roots of leguminous plants and it increases soil fertility by converting atmospheric nitrogen into organic compounds.

Larger soil organisms, such as earthworms and arthropods, add nutrients to the soil through their waste as they shred and feed on SOM. They also improve soil texture, root penetration, water infiltration, and spread beneficial bacteria by their movement in the soil. Microbes create nutrient-like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus, potassium, trace elements, vitamins and amino acids and make them available for plant in right form for their growth and health. Bacteria and fungi are the major decomposer on earth and crucial component for composting and humus formation. Bacteria help fix the atmospheric nitrogen with the help of nitrogenase enzyme and increase the nitrogen content in the soil. It is referred to as Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria Soil microorganisms are responsible for most of the nutrient release from organic matter. When microorganisms decompose organic matter, they use the carbon and nutrients in the organic matter for their own growth. They release excess nutrients into the soil where they can be taken up by plants. Microorganisms help break down organic matter, they release essential nutrients and carbon dioxide into the soil, fix nitrogen and help transform nutrients into mineral forms that plants can use through a process called mineralization and nitrogen fixing bacteria improve soil fertility. Soil microbes play an important role in nutrient recycling. They decompose organic matter to release nutrients. They are also important to trap and transform nutrients into the soil, which can be taken up by plant roots. Nutrient cycling rate depends on various biotic, physical and chemical factors. Soil microbes play a vital role in the sustained growth of plants. They decompose and recycling nutrients bound in organic materials. They help access minerals in rocks large and small. And, they can even refine nitrogen from the air into a useful form for plants. Microorganisms play an important role in improving soil fertility and involved in all aspects of N cycling, including N2 fixation, nitrification, denitrification and ammonification. They decompose plant residues, soil organic matter and release inorganic nutrients that can then be taken up by plants. Within food plant cropping systems, microorganisms provide vital functions and ecosystem services, such as biological pest and disease control, promotion of plant growth and crop quality, and biodegradation of organic matter and pollutants. Effective Microorganisms (EM) are mixed cultures of beneficial naturally-occurring organisms that can be applied as inoculants to increase the microbial diversity of soil ecosystem. They consist mainly of the photosynthesizing bacteria, lactic acid bacteria, yeasts, actinomycetes and fermenting fungi.

Seed development is a complex process involving seed germination (imbibition, emergence of redicle and plumule resulting from bursting of seed due to secretion of GA; and seed emergence...Soil moisture is important whereby seed development may get influenced because of moisture stress (drought) and water logging conditions(devoid of oxygen whereby seed wouldn't be able to respire) because of heavy rainfall or poor drainage...Soil temperatures, humidity, atmospheric temperature are another factor...

The soil microbes mediate the biogeochemical cycling for soil mineral nutrients availability such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur, which are the major growth-promoting nutrients to the plants. The microbes use organic carbon as their energy source to drive the recycling process. The soil microbes mediate the biogeochemical cycling for soil mineral nutrients availability such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur, which are the major growth-promoting nutrients to the plants. The microbes use organic carbon as their energy source to drive the recycling process. Microorganisms and their interactions in soil play a critical role in mediating the distribution of P between the available pool in soil solution and the total soil P through solubilization and mineralization reactions, and through immobilization of P into microbial biomass and/or formation of sparingly available forms. Microorganisms are essential to soil formation and soil ecology because they control the flux of nutrients to plants promote nitrogen fixation, and promote soil detoxification of inorganic and naturally occurring organic pollutants.

Here is a possible structure:

- Abstract (Write this last; summary and results in a nutshell)

- Introduction (For an educated stranger who doesn't know what you did)

- Materials and Methods (What you did and what you used in doing it)

- Results (What happened? What worked? What didn't work?)

- Conclusions (Therefore, we can conclude [what?] and [what] should be the next step in this research.

@ RK, soil microbes have a great role in maintaining soil fertility as they live close proximity to plant roots, and can significantly affect soil and crop health by performing nitrogen-fixation, phosphorus solubilization, suppression of pests and pathogens, improvement of plant stress, and decomposition that leads to soil aggregation. Moreover, they can release of plant nutrients from insoluble inorganic forms as well as after decomposition of organic residues . They can also form beneficial soil humus by decomposing organic residues and through synthesis of new compounds. The released nutrients into the soil due to microorganisms can very well be taken up by plants for their nutrition.

Bacteria change the soil environment so that certain plant species can exist and proliferate. Where new soil is forming, certain photosynthetic bacteria start to colonize the soil, recycling nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, and other soil nutrients to produce the first organic matter. Bacteria increase soil fertility through nutrient recycling such as carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus. Bacteria also help in the decomposition of dead organic matter and then give out simple compounds in the soil, which can be used up by plants. Microbes help the break down organic matter from dead plants and animals and incorporate it into the soil, which increases the soil's organic content, improves soil structure, and helps plants thrive. Microorganisms perform an important function in cycling these nutrients. They convert organically bound elements to inorganic or mineral forms that are available for plant use. This process is called mineralization. Microorganisms, as well as plants, also immobilize nutrients in their biomass as they grow. Microorganisms have several vital roles in ecosystems: decomposition, oxygen production, evolution, and symbiotic relationships. Decomposition is where dead animal or plant matter is broken down into more basic molecules. This process only happens because of the microorganisms that find their way into the dead matter. Microorganisms are essential to soil formation and soil ecology because they control the flux of nutrients to plants promote nitrogen fixation, and promote soil detoxification of inorganic and naturally occurring organic pollutants.

Hi Rk Naresh,

The main role of the soil Microbiota is to ensure the natural mineralization cycles of elements. This is done by turning the organic matter into assimilable elements for plants. the point is, is there enough supply of organic matter in soil so that the microbiota plays its role?

I hope it helps,

Best regards,

Fertilizers are applied to replace the essential nutrients for plant growth to the soil after they have been depleted. Excess amounts of fertilizers may enter streams creating sources of non-point pollution. Fertilizers most commonly enter water sources by surface runoff and leaching from agricultural lands. The first 40 kg/acre of nitrogen application doubles crop yields, from 60 bushels per acre to around 130 kg/bushel. The next 20 kg/acre adds another 5% to crop yields. The next 20kg/acre adds 4%. The next 20kg/acre adds 3%. Considerations include: the particular mixture of nutrients needed, the crop, and timing of application, available equipment, and planting/tillage practices. To retain soil fertility it is necessary to replenish nutrients by returning to the soil at least the same amount. So we use fertilizers which contains the essential nutrients. Fertilizers provide plants with the essential chemical elements needed for growth particularly nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. The timing and quantity of fertilizer especially N application, source of fertilizer, nutrient content combination, and their interactions with land and land use aspects were crucial elements for getting optimum response to fertilizer.

Livestock manures and natural mined materials like rock phosphate, lime, gypsum and K-management are some of my top choices. If the pH is low, lime it. Choose the correct type of lime, either high calcium or dolomite, depending on your soils, and don't overdo it.Calcium and magnesium provide for the long-range goals in terms of soil fertility needed to reach the best in regard to yield and quality. Without the proper amount of both of these needed nutrients the soil's true potential will never be met.

Dear Laliteshwari Bhardwaj,

To do the PCA or NMDS analysis you can use the PAST software (https://www.nhm.uio.no/english/research/resources/past/)

To interpret the results you can consult the GUSTA ME (https://sites.google.com/site/mb3gustame/home?overridemobile=true)

Up to 20% of plant photosynthetic output is excreted out of roots.

This substrate feeds an active largely beneficiL microbial rhizosphere.

Microbes can be delivered on seed on in soil to stimulate plant microbe symbiosis

Or compare different models :)

Null hypotheses or model testing :)

I appreciate the answers provided by @Abhishek Mukherjee, @Peter Donkor. These are helpful comments related to applying biochar in agriculture.

Many thanks @Robert Ramsay for your clarification.

The disadvantages of using nano fertilizer first would be due to its high cost which is why not every farmer is able to adopt nano technologies for farming because of their poor economic conditions and secondly the disadvantage of nano fertilizer is that it has no particular dose which means that the dose that we have to apply is not determined, the amount of nano fertilizer can vary and also it has high variability, shows high

reactivity and also sometimes harmful to the environment.

The best venue for biochar is acid infertile soils with soil compaction issues.

The biochar acts as a type of liming agent in those soils addressing acidity and providing essential micronutrients.

Biochar and compost are complementary the larger effect is from compost.

If you put on 15 MT per hectare of good compost and 5 MT of biochar you can renew and invigorate many acid infertile ultisols and oxisols many found in tropical environments.

Rates above those rates get into diminished and negative reactions and are not very economical.

Work on minimum doses with optimum economics are recommended

Soil organic matter can affect the soil physical condition or physical health and the chemical condition or health and the biological condition or health.

The physical condition of the soil is made less dense from soil organic matter This soil organic takes compacted mineral material and the fluffy organic matter loosen it this can be measured by soil density.

The chemical condition is improved as soil organic matter improves the mineral contents.

Soil organic matter serves as food for diverse communities of animals such asn insects and earthworms and microbes like fungi and bacteria.

Most organisms in soil play neutral and positive roles and a small number are pathogens.

When overall diversity and populations of soil organisms are high the pathogenic component of soil is put into check.

minerals physical condition and biology are all important for productive soils the flluffy factor provides the water and air needed for robust crop production, the biology and air capacity of soils is related to organic matter content and organic matter is a basis of biological diversity and populations which is highly favorable.

The Bray-1 extractant (0.025 N HCl + 0.03 N NH₄F) was developed for use in acid soils. Aluminum phosphate (AlPO₄) is the primary P mineral controlling solution P concentrations in acid soils. The F complexes with Al³⁺ in solution, and as the Al³⁺ concentration in soil solution decreases, AlPO₄ dissolves to buffer or resupply solution Al and releases P into the solution.

Basically saline, saline alkali and alkali soils are highly dispersed, as a result Na may be adsorbed on fine mud particles creating unfavorite leaching and infiltration conditions in fine textured soils. Otherwise it could be a suitable remediation for course textured soils.

Dear Elaheh Daghighi . This can be done by improving CEC in weathered soils by adding lime and raising the pH. Otherwise, adding organic matter is the most effective way of improving the CEC of your soil. See the useful link: https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/soils/guides/soil-nutrients-and-fertilisers/cec

Microorganism plays a greater role in inhancing soil fertiity they can mobilize the nutrient in plant available form. It can also helps in decomposition of organic matter. They can directly and indirectly involve in physio-chemical changes occurs into the soil. It can also improve soil aeration. With proper aeration status oxidation process eg. nitrification can enhanced.

Thank you @Shuraik Kader for sharing this useful paper.

Also, kindly check:

I am totally agree with @ J.C. Tarafdar Sir. Apparently soil Respiration and dehydrogenase activity measures the microbial activity in soil. For soil Respiration we can go for either alkali trap that has been discussed or we can go for rapid techniques by comprehensive analysis of soil health by Cornell University.

Muhammad Rashid

Organic matter is commonly and incorrectly used to describe the same soil fraction as total organic carbon. Organic matter is different from total organic carbon in that it includes all the elements (hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, etc) that are components of organic compounds, not just carbon.

Organic P is located mostly in the fulvic and humic acid fractions of the soil humus. There is a strong relationship between phosphatases activities in the soil and amount of organic P mineralized from the organic to plant available inorganic forms. Phosphorus' primary role in a plant is to store and transfer energy produced by photosynthesis for use in growth and reproductive processes. Soil P cycles in a variety forms in the soil. Adequate P levels promote root growth and winter hardiness, stimulate tillering, and hasten maturity. Provides essential nutrients for plants phosphorus as it is decomposed by microbes. Feeds and provides habitats for diverse soil organisms, including those that help fight plant pests and diseases.

Have a look at this useful RG link.

Strongly Negative correlation

And kindly check:

Interesting question.

Food security, lowering the risk of climate change and meeting the increasing demand for energy will increasingly be critical challenges in the years to come. Producing sustainably is therefore becoming central in agriculture and food systems. Legume crops could play an important role in this context by delivering multiple services in line with sustainability principles. In addition to serving as fundamental, worldwide source of high-quality food and feed, legumes contribute to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases, as they release 5–7 times less GHG per unit area compared with other crops; allow the sequestration of carbon in soils with values estimated from 7.21 g kg−1DM, 23.6 versus 21.8 g C kg−1 year; and induce a saving of fossil energy inputs in the system thanks to N fertilizer reduction, corresponding to 277 kg ha−1 of CO2 per year. Legumes also perform well in conservation systems, inter cropping systems, which are very important in low-input and low-yield farming systems.

Also please check the following link:

Thank you @Annangi Subba Rao for rising up such interesting discussion. I am a soil biologist working specifically on soil fauna. So, my concern is always the soil biodiversity loss, may be on one side caused of this conventional Agriculture and also the opinion of many farmers that they do not tend to change their traditional old manners. But, using these old Agri-methods make the soil unbalanced in long-time. Therefore, I like to get this wonderful chance here to ask researchers who may share their experiences on how we can use our knowledge of soil fauna to show the accuracy of beneficial soil treatments as a proxy to old ones. I mean to pay attention to Conservation Agriculture. Thank you.

Minimum disturbance of soil. Application of green manure along with FYM and less focus on synthetic and chemical pesticides and herbicide. Plant based pesticides can be a good option. Soil cover with cover crops. Crop rotation with legume crop which can fix atmospheric nitrogen.

Anoop Kumar Srivastava Yes i do feel that Organic Matter is a must and have as Humic materials and Humus is a must and I have personally seen changes in few crops in the agricultural fields and believe me overall enhancement is more than 30-35%

According to the literature review and due to the nature of structure and function of phosphorous cycle in soil in various ecosystems and when the vital activities of some organisms is endangered due to its fluctuations, it should be considered a series suitable management decisions to prevent diminish of that. In fact, the balancing/equilibrium building of this macro element/ion as a conventional approach is proposed in soil science. Among that, the pH of soil is decisive role that should be considered.

According to the potential capacity of the lands and considering product ecology requirements and rely on the agronomy management requirements and considerations Ley-Farming cropping pattern is better than the mono-culturing.

Cation exchange capacity

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is a useful indicator of soil fertility because it shows the soil's ability to supply three important plant nutrients: calcium, magnesium and potassium.

Please find the attachments.

Regards.

I respect the opinion of colleagues here, but I am in agreement with Robert. Earthworms make hollows in the soil, always remove soil particles and their secretions are highly useful for soil chemistry and structure and finally all these actions help the soil to be in a healthy cycle to make a very appropriate bed for plant and tree growing. Last but not least, in my opinion controlling the population of earthworms should be done very cautiously.

The botanicals registered so far for commercialization in agriculture are neem kernel extract, neem oil, eucalyptus oil, carathamus, leaf & flower extracts and few other extractives, which are mostly used for controlling pests, not for improving soil fertility and plant nutrition. If label claim for botanicals have been asked for pest management only it means they are not for soil fertility improvement.