Rocks - Science topic

Respected Sir

Thanks for your Answer. Your References are unable to view. by click on that link page not found is viewing.

The Q system is a widely used rock mass classification system that was developed by Barton, Lien, and Lunde in 1974. The Q system is based on a quantitative assessment of the rock mass quality and is widely used in rock engineering projects such as tunneling, mining, and slope stability analysis.

The Q system is based on six parameters that describe the quality of the rock mass. These parameters are:

RQD (Rock Quality Designation): This parameter describes the degree of intactness of the rock mass. It is expressed as a percentage of the drilled core length that is recovered in pieces longer than 100 mm.

Jn (Joint set number): This parameter describes the number of joint sets present in the rock mass.

Jr (Joint roughness coefficient): This parameter describes the roughness of the joints in the rock mass.

Ja (Joint alteration factor): This parameter describes the degree of alteration of the joints in the rock mass.

SRF (Stress reduction factor): This parameter describes the degree to which the rock mass has been subjected to stress changes.

GSI (Geological Strength Index): This parameter is a qualitative estimate of the rock mass strength based on its lithology, structure, and degree of weathering.

Each of these parameters is assigned a weighting factor based on its relative importance to the overall quality of the rock mass. The Q value is then calculated by summing the weighted values of each parameter.

The Q system has been widely used in rock engineering projects to assess the quality of the rock mass and to design appropriate support systems. The system has been adapted and modified for specific applications, and several variants of the Q system have been developed over the years. Despite its limitations, the Q system remains a valuable tool for rock mass classification and engineering design.

Softwares like Abaqus or Plaxis are good modeling software. Yet there are good packages for MATLAB and Python as well.

Thank you very much my dear Horst for your answer.

about radius r google says

Denote arc and chord as a, b, then rθ=a, 2rsin(θ/2)=b.

that is, 2 equations for 2 unknowns must be solved

like here

https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/4240894/get-radius-of-circle-given-arc-length-and-chord-length#:~:text=Denote%20arc%20and%20chord%20as,%CE%B8%2F2)%3Db.

good luck

As much as sample coordinates are important in research and other academic publications, it is not out of place to make samples private and confidential due to company data privacy terms. However, the research interest could also determine whether sample coordinates are key or not. In summary, sample coordinates should be encourage as a key inclusion in research in order to make our findings and contributions germane and noble in the public domain.

Please, could you provide more details? What type of images do you have?

The answer is in this paper:

Rose-Koga E + 74 co-authors (2021) Silicate melt inclusions in the new millennium: A review of recommended practices for preparation, analysis, and data presentation. Chemical Geology, 570, paper #120145, 26 pp. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2021.120145

There are various technologies for binding CO2 to rock, which are part of the CCS process. Here are some examples:

Mineral carbonation: This involves reacting CO2 with naturally occurring minerals, such as magnesium or calcium silicates, to form stable carbonate minerals. This can occur naturally over geological timescales, but researchers are investigating ways to accelerate the process through technology.

Enhanced weathering: This is similar to mineral carbonation, but involves grinding up rocks and spreading them over land to accelerate the reaction between CO2 and minerals. This can also have other environmental benefits, such as improving soil quality.

Injection into deep saline aquifers: This involves injecting CO2 into deep underground saline aquifers, which are layers of rock that contain salty water. The CO2 dissolves in the water and can remain trapped underground for long periods of time.

Injection into depleted oil and gas reservoirs: This involves injecting CO2 into depleted oil and gas reservoirs, which can enhance the recovery of remaining fossil fuels and also store the CO2 underground.

Injection into unminable coal seams: Similar to injection into depleted oil and gas reservoirs, this involves injecting CO2 into unminable coal seams to enhance the recovery of coal bed methane and store CO2 underground.

Research on teaching reading to adults has focused on various methodologies, including whole language, phonics, and a combination of the two. Here is a brief synopsis of the existing research:

In addition to these approaches, research has also focused on the importance of providing explicit instruction in vocabulary, comprehension strategies, and fluency. There is also evidence to suggest that individualized instruction, such as one-on-one tutoring, can be effective for adult learners who struggle with reading.

Overall, research on teaching reading to adults has highlighted the importance of using evidence-based instructional practices, providing explicit instruction in a range of reading skills, and tailoring instruction to meet the specific needs of individual learners.

In the Indian Himalayan region, modeling of avalanches and debris flows requires a perfect and fine resolution terrain data. Such type of terrain data is not available till date. Further, researcher can create a fine resolution terrain but it requires huge amount of funds.

Normal stress acts at a right angle to a surface and can either push a rock together or pull it apart. In geology, compression stress is positive and tensional stress is negative. In engineering, the opposite sign convention is used. Normal stress acts at a right angle (perpendicular) to a surface and can either push a rock together (compression) or pull it apart (tension). In geology, compressional stress is positive and tensional stress is negative. In engineering, the opposite sign convention is used. To calculate for normal stress, two essential parameters are needed and these parameters are normal force (ΔN) and area (ΔA). Scores ranging from 0-13 would be considered low stress. Scores ranging from 14-26 would be considered moderate stress. Scores ranging from 27-40 would be considered high perceived stress.

Thank you Christopher, I will have a look at it this week.

I agree that relying solely on simplified models can lead to misleading results and that it is important to consider the limitations of these models. In some cases, the assumptions made by these models may not accurately reflect the true behavior of rock masses, which can lead to errors in predictions and design.

The anisotropy of rock masses is an important factor that must be taken into account in rock mechanics practice. The failure of rock masses can occur along different planes and directions, and ignoring this anisotropy can lead to errors in predictions of shear strength and deformation.

In terms of using a "D fudge-factor" to modify deformation modulus, it is important to be aware of the limitations of this approach. This method can provide quick and simple results, but it may not accurately reflect the true behavior of the rock mass and can result in significant errors.

In conclusion, it is important to use a careful and systematic approach in rock mechanics practice, taking into account the specific properties and behavior of rock masses. While simplified models can be useful for rough estimates and initial design, it is important to use more detailed and complex methods when necessary to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the results.

Garnet in sedimentary rocks is always metamorphic or magmatic in origin, or has been derived from reworked sediments. Magmatic and metamorphic garnets are rarely monomineralic but s.s.s. such as "Grandite" (grossular+andratite = Ca/Al+Ca/Fe) or "Pyralspit" (pyrope+almandine+spessatine = Mg/Al+Fe/Al+Mn/Al). As you might conclude from the attached file you need to get an idea of the chemical composition and in some cases also of the valence state of Fe (see almandine and andratite)

I wish you much success with the table below which might help to come to grips with this issue.

HGD

As a geologist, I can differentiate between a ground rock and a meteorite based on several physical characteristics listed below. Typically you want to see very dense iron and nickel with olivine and pyroxene crystals gives it away. A meteorite can be classified as a solid piece of debris from an object, such as a comet, asteroid, or meteoroid, that originates from outside the Earth's atmosphere and survives its passage through the atmosphere to reach the surface of the Earth. To identify a meteorite, one can look for the following features:

It's important to note that not all meteorites have all of these features and some rocks that meet some of these criteria may still not be meteorites. The best way to know for certain is to have the rock tested by a laboratory with the appropriate equipment and expertise. This can involve a variety of techniques, including x-ray diffraction, spectroscopy, and microscopy, to determine the rock's mineral composition and structure. Meteorites are diverse in their composition and can be classified into several groups based on their mineralogy and texture:

Each type of meteorite provides unique information about the composition and history of the Solar System and the bodies from which they originated.

Hope this helps,

Cancrinite is one of the most common replacement/alteration products in Ne-bearing magmatic and metamorphic rocks under hydrothermal conditions

The Kathmandu-Banepa Basin is a "chemical waste-paper basket" for trace elements. We created a chemical atlas of that region collecting the elements of the Lesser and Higher Himalayas:

DILL, H. G., PIYA, B., ROETTGER B., TALLIG, A., DOHRMANN, R., WECK H.- D., SIEWERS, U., BUSCH, K., KHADKA, D.R. and KHANAL, R. (2002) Chemical and mineralogical compositions of fine-grained siliciclastics in the Kathmandu-Banepa Basins – Base maps for environmental and economic geology.-Zeitschrift für angewandte Geologie, 48: 30 – 48.

HGD

Thank you very much for the clarification and detailed explanation. All the best and success

I confess that I emotionally overestimated the relevance of the sources I found. However, on more calm reflection, I can say the following. The question I raised still requires serious research. This is indicated at least by the fact that in most works the effect of music on cardiac activity is considered, mediated through emotions, and not direct. Moreover, some authors claim that they did not observe the enthusiasm (that is, assimilation) of the heart rate to the rhythms of music. However, according to my experience in physiology and physics, this lack of assimilation of rhythms is possible only under the condition of the absolute impossibility of the resonance of the rhythms of music, with all their overtones, and the rhythms of the heart. In fact, the rhythms of the drummer and bass in hard rock, transmitted through the subwoofer, have frequency components that resonate not only with the heart rhythm, but also with alpha, theta and other brain rhythms.

The rotational components of the earthquake can be calculated from the transitional components.

Dear RG colleague Ioannis Lymperis,

To tell you the truth, O have no idea as I am not an expert in this field. However, I wish you success and all the very best with this issue

Dear Eyob Abebe ,

There should be get an explanation for your results in every way! Simple explanation... Nothing serious should be thought of. Microtectonics, contact metamorphosis, erosion, subsequent thermal, hydrothermal effects... geochemical behavior of lead... What minerals is lead concentrated in?If you can't find any connections, ... Should do a lot of sample analysis and apply statistics (but you may not be able to afford the latter)...

Regards,

Laszlo

Here are a few literature suggestions on bond strength and degree of metamorphism:

I hope these suggestions are helpful!

Here are a few additional literature suggestions on bond strength and degree of metamorphism, specifically focusing on papers on bond strength vs degree of metamorphism, bond strength of sedimentary rocks (primarily sandstones), and what they depend on:

Perthite is an intergrowth with K feldspar forming the host for Na feldspar (K>Na). Antiperthite is the intergrowth displaying the Na feldspar hosting the K feldspar (Na>K). Check your intergrown minerals by means of the petrographic microscope or the EMPA. Whole-rock XRF and only routine thin section examination alone may be accountable for the mis-interpretation.

HGD

Yes it could be, i confirm ... for example using a RFID tag at 13.56MHz buried in dry or wet soil.

The range can be more than the diameter of reader antenna, about twice with an large area tag antenna.

Hi yanxin, I guess they are more likely to be volcanic glass, cuz they contain abundant Al2O3, K2O, TiO2, and/or MgO and FeO. The amorphous silica usually contains >90 wt.% SiO2, and presents as the darkest phase (if no carbonates in the thin section) in the BSE image. It is possible that the darkest phaseis related to silica, as indicated in the attached figure (outline by red ellipses).

If you mean silicic volcanic glass (which is not a pure SiO2), it can be easily recognized in thin sections. For instance, there are some good photographs at https://www.alexstrekeisen.it/english/vulc/glass.php

A hydrothermal opal is also not much problematic in thin sections, as it usually fills some pores and cavities. Perhaps it is difficult to recognize micron-sized and smaller opal particles, but this is typical for many other mineral phases.

Pisolitic (pea-rock) limestone. Does it react with acid?

I do not know where the material comes from but nevertheless the HCl test is mandatory.

It is always fraught with uncertainties to provide any classificaton in this remote controlled way but my first glance made me think of a garnet-bearing crystalline (metamorphic) rock with a gray-green matrix. I know it is very daring but many speaks in favor of an amphibolitic eclogite (?)

HGD

Hello, thank you for your interest. You wrote ""Almost all the articles I have seen about strain rate effects are descriptions or applications of the phenomenon, but I have not yet seen articles on the microphysical explanation of the existence of strain rate effects."". I felt the experience and the reflection covered by this sentence. It summarizes the heart of the problem because if the models of equation of state make it possible to answer; the experimental techniques, on the other hand, do not allow all the essential measurements to be carried out. Indeed, the measurements under shocks do not refer to the multiphonon processes, to the dielectric function and to the description of the energy processes under deformation. I will soon send you a link to the site dedicated to this research and to online training for materials experts. In the meantime, I am sending you a summary of the work.

Cordially.

Under thermal, mechanical, electrical, shock or irradiation stresses, insulators accumulate energy, age and explode; it is widely accepted that the microscopic mechanisms of these processes are not understood. However, it is shown that they arise from localized stresses around extensive defects and whose relaxation is at the origin of elastoplasticity and damage of materials. In metals, these defects are dislocations. In insulators, they are dislocations and traps for charge carriers, electrons or holes. The localized energy per defect depends on the permittivity of the medium, its mechanical moduli, the temperature and the losses. The energy, of the order of 10^4 to 10^6 eV /defect, is distributed over clusters of 10^4 to 10^6atoms. Its relaxation takes place in the characteristic time of the atomic polarization (10^(-9) s), that is to say at a very high deformation rate (10^8 s^(-1)), with the formation of shocks, followed by very strong increases of the temperature, of the electrical conductivity and of the polarization. The transfer by multiphonon processes of the relaxed energy to the neighboring bonds, is at the origin of the instabilities and the damages which result from it: bond breaking, aging, de-cohesion, formation of hot spots, crystallization of the amorphous parts, emission of particles, aging, progressive fracture and collective bond breaking process. Electron beam characterization uses traps to determine the maximum internal energy density that the material stably retains and to measure its decay when defects are destroyed. Knowing the initial state of the material, the measurements provide the envelope of the final states of the internal energy transformation. The initial state depends on the composition and manufacturing processes. The final state depends on the applied stresses. Therefore, one is able to develop defect engineering that involves modifying the elastoplastic characteristics of materials and ensuring that they are compatible with their operating constraints. This work includes a synthesis of testing and characterization techniques, a synthesis of the observations to be known when using these materials, a synthesis of the models that allowed us to know what to measure and how to do it, the principles of defect engineering, their application to various industrial problems.

Elena Shigorina

Granites normally develop fractures during cooling after emplacement. Additional fractures can be imposed by tectonic activity. It is likely that the cooling fractures will be symmetrical, but the tectonic fractures will be asymmetrical and perhaps sub-parallel. You might need to evaluate the fracture/joint orientation data before interpreting seismic data.

This is very intresting observations. What you defined as different fracture modes? There were static, quasi-static or dynamic loads?

That is a strange question. As Ioan Pintea suggested, 100% is a high quartz value for a quartzite, but 59% is a high value for your meta-basic rocks, but 59% might be a low value for a quartzite. The categories low, medium and high will be different for each different rock. You need to understand the purpose for making these categories. Is there any purpose? If not, why are you doing it?

You can check my paper here;

Divyadeep Harbola, it might depend on the type of rock you are handling. For soft rocks like limestone, acid/base might work but for hard ones like shales it is very difficult. Industrially shales are hydro-fracked to increase the porosity. Hence chemicals hardly work with them.

Thank you sir

The intercrystalline space is synonymous with the intercrystalline porosity or pore space which can be of primary or secondary origin. The primary origin is genetically related to the lithogenic process resultant from a mass deficit. It can be very high in sedimentary rocks or rather low in magmatic and metamorphic rocks, down to the nano-scale. Secondary porosity is caused by supergene (weathering) or hypogene alteration (hydrothermal sub - and supercritical fluids). It is controlled in its siting by primary textures, including primary pore space and/or secondary physical structures such as tectonic ones (e.g. joint and fissure fillings or voids). The pore space can be filled by gaseous, fluid or solid material.

The crystal lattice is identical with the minerals such as CPx or OPx, excluding some non-crystalline phases such as glass.

HGD

Please read our paper:

Preparation methods in Mineralogy and Geology,

by Günter Grundmann and Herbert Scholz.

I advise You to look at pages 48 and 49 of the attached PDF file, but You will have to translate the text from Russian.

Barton Q system?

Thank you for your reply. In fact, I once studied the dissolution process of rock minerals in the process of acid leaching, and observed the rock morphology after the acid leaching process by scanning electron microscope. I'm actually curious about the formation of rock cracks https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Blessing-Taiwo-5during acid leaching.@

Dear Ratnamani Gupta

Thank you so much for your erudite suggestion! I will check the book you have suggested!

Ljubomir Jacić Thank You sir for your comments.

Hello Fu,

I'd concur with the previous comments: In effect, surface uplift creates potential energy for surficial processes, so translating into opportunity for greater erosion. There are caveats, however, because the climatic regime will have a very important control on the efficacy of this process. For instance, one may consider Tibet - here there has been significant uplift over the last 15 - 20 Ma, yet it remains an elevated plateau with little internal denudation. However, place such uplift in a regime that has high precipitation, elevated temperatures and thus effective weathering, then becomes huge potential for erosion and exhumation. This is certainly the case on the southern fringes of the Himalayan orogen, as affected by the SW monsoon system.

There a many areas around the globe where elevated (orogenic and epierogenic) uplifted regions, or their fragments, remain preserved over long (geological) time spans. It seems that here the climate regime may have had the controlling influence.

I am less certain regarding gravity collapse, though one may regard that orogen-building could well lead to such effects in the crustal regime, whereas significant crustal thinning through erosion and over-burden reduction may act to mitigate such effects.

Hello,

I have been working in that arena.

To my knowledge, there is no such established standard(s). However, you could consider these papers (among others) for conceptual inspiration :

- Jain et al., (1974)

- Matsuoka et al., (2001)

- Oyanguren et al. (2008)

Thanks!

Best Regards,

Gilbert

Don't mix up P-T conditions (metamorphic facies) and rock definitions. Eclogite is defined as a HP metamorphic rock of mafic composition, which primarily (>3/4) consists of garnet and omphacite in the absence of plagioclase. This is very different to a mantle peridotite, which is ultramafic and commonly shows high modal contents of olivine.

In oil & gas prospection and petrophysics, I guess this is not the case, Dr. Niu Zihua

Please, here there is one reference: Rocks are very important for oil & gas

Most high-d18O silicic magmas seem to be related to assimilation or partial melting of sedimentary or metasedimentary rocks, particularly in thick supracrustal continental crust. For example, S-type granites commonly have d18O values >10 permil. Assimilation of carbonates or low-temperature hydrothermally altered rocks would also be a possibility, but is probably less significant in terms of producing larger volumes of high-d18O magma

Aws Talak Mashaan Applied geology

These photos help quite a bit. I think they support the paleosol interpretation as does your observation that the rock is crumbly. The paloesol hypothesis could be tested with further observations based on this scenario: the lower part of the basalt in the outcrop was weathered prior to the upper part being emplaced. To test this idea one could look for evidence that there are two separate flows (Does the basalt above the red rock show evidence of a chill zone at the base? Does the underlying basalt have any indication of vesicles related to degassing at the top of a flow?). If fossil root traces (rhizoliths) could be confidently identified, that would be quite compelling evidence. One useful implication of this hypothesis is that the boundary between the two postulated flows could be a migration pathway for fluids. The close-up photos of the fracture fill suggest that there has been major fluid flow through them (based on the amount of cement and size of crystals). If this hypothetical surface could be mapped, one might gain new ideas about how fluids deposited economic mineral deposits in this region. Thanks again for the interesting question.

HREE enrichment (i.e. slope up towards the HREE) can result from many minerals, with some examples being garnet, zircon, xenotime, and more.

Usually HREE depletion (slope down towards the HREE) in igneous rocks (including but not limited to granites) indicates that garnet either exists at source, or has fractionated. Because HREE prefer garnet, and the garnet is left behind, no much HREE is left for the new rock.

This is a very simplified way to look at things and as always there are complications. But it's a good starting point.

C-RP concentration is measured in mg/L (SI units) and μg/mL (conventional units) while that of PCT is pico(10^–12)count

As far as granite-hosted final waste disposals are concerned, current requirements are a long-term safety of approx.. 1 million years which is reasoned by the half-life period of plutonium isotopes and the granite´s apical part being located at a depth a greater than 300 m under ground with a good sealing capacity of the non-granitic roof rocks above.

The granite is the natural source rock of uranium (background appr. 4 ppm U) with hot granites reaching a level of 20 ppm U. Moreover, a lot of U-vein-types and low-grade large tonnage deposits (e.g., Namibia) are hosted by magmatic rocks of the granite suite.

I studied for more than 6 years mainly the Variscan U deposits in Europe which formed around 300 Ma ago, and underwent supergene alteration during a period of time of less than 60 Ma. During that time strong fracturing on a regional scale was overprinting the country rock around, its wall rocks and the granite themselves which display a characteristic joint pattern. There were also mantle plumes sparking basic and alkaline volcanic rocks in the period of time younger than 60 Ma. Neither the structural, nor the temperature events have affected the U-bearing granites and their U deposits. This can be proved by a meticulous U/Pb age dating, paleogeographic and terrain analyses during the recent past including the study of the U/Pb equilibrium (< 0.8 Ma).

On the other hand, there are also self-sealing capacities to be observed in the granites caused by nontronite (smectite group clay mineral) and kaolinite-group phyllosilicates) which developed along with post-granitic hydrothermal processes and per descensum supergene alteration. The immigration of meteoric and hypogene fluids is hampered despite of the strong fracturing to be observed especially in shallow granites.

By and large, where mother nature has accumulated and preserved uranium for more than 300 Ma , human beings should not try and create by hair-splitting arguments a dangerous setting which does not exist. There is no doubt that radon and radiation is harmful to men but taking into account the three important issues: Time, distance and thickness may minimize the risk of causing radiation-induced diseases.

HGD

I agree with Guenter Grundmann . It's bad practice to make conclusions about minerals or rocks based on a photo in the sunlight (from a phone camera?). There should be data to analyse. The location (coordinates NE), the thin section (CPL, PPL), the chip and so on...

It's a little different with SEM. They are made a little rougher for SEM and must be polished. I still don't look at it the same way, through the underlying glass :). But more often I prefer to have a separate covered thin section and a polished cross section for SEM. Thin sections are usually poorly polished and polishing quality is important to SEM.

Follow

This looks like a transient heat transfer problem being modelled as steady state one. The main debate issue on such problems is always the boundary conditions assumed to make the mathematics feasible: traditionally either constant temperature or constant heat flux were used, while neither is the real case.

Transient conduction into a semi-infinite solid is covered in Carslaw and Jaegers old, but excellent, book.

Hi Dhanraj,

in the end, I could not find an easy solution. What I did was to identify the nodes with high displacement (above a threshold), since both the deleted elements and also the elements which fly away have disp, and then calculate the total volume of the elements associated with these nodes.

I think there should be an easier way to do this but I could not find it. The problem arises from the elements which don't fail but simply become detached and fly away. Otherwise it would be simple to just check the element status.

good luck,

Murat

Hi Mr. Rojhani,

For study about rock genesis, I would suggest to take at the least one sampling point for each lithological unit. However, if you found variations within the same lithological unit, it's better to sample each variation.

Lithological unit/variation is more important than dimension/distance between sampling point.

For each sample, you will need to take two hand-sized speciment, one for microscopic observation (thin section + polished section if needed), one for chemical analysis (XRF, ICP-MS, stable isotope).

Muhammad Hassan Agheem and Nima Nezafati your Wikipedia article says “nodular chert is most common in limestone …” and ”Where chert occurs in chalk or marl, it is usually called flint.” Thus my description of it as a flint nodule appears to be correct especially as both sets of X-ray data contain significant CaCO3 - limestone.

In my opinion, the Griffith failure criterion can be a good option, considering that it has been discussed in many sources ( e.g., Fracture Mechanics, (2011) by Chin-Teh Sun, Zhihe Jin ) it can be a suitable and complete criterion in rock masses.

I would go a double-blow strategy

1. Isolate the xenoliths, take a picture and carry out a classification with the unarmed eye or hand lens for chemical analyses which you have already been pondering over. This chemical analyses can start with the common major and minor element XRF analysis and be extended to an advanced level studies including stable and instable isotope (radiometric dating). The non-destructive XRD (also quantitative) can be performed prior to that using the powdered samples to be planed for XRD. Thereby, you get a small-scale overview of the bulk mineral and chemical composition.

2. The second part should capitalize on the first step when it comes to a mineralogical and chemical investigation along transects across the boundary between the xenoliths and the host rock. Thin- and polished section can be used for the various xenolith types 1, 2, 3,…..etc. established under No. 1 step. In the course a that a fine-tuning of No 1 may be achieved and by means of , e.g., EMPA and/or ICPMS the chemical reactions between host and inclusion can be investigated.

It is a rather general approach which can be lifted to a more advanced level. It is only very important to provide a dual – use platform which you can work on, open to various directions and avoiding to block any sort of analysis. A self-designed flow chart , e.g., on PowerPoint can be of assistance because such diagram is always open for amendments.

I wish you much success

HGD

Hi Michelle A.M. Vis , for micro porous media, for any pore, tube or pore throat that is ~<1.8 micron, then darcy permeability (k) equation would be the equation to use. Because at the micro scale the gravity (g) and capillary forces (Pc: Capillary Pressure) work against each others. Therefore, if no enough DP (Differential Pressure) between the inlet (Top) and outlet (Bottom) that can overcome the Pc, then the flow would not happen, however, depending on the initial condition that you start the flooding with, conditions like the saturation fluid type, wettability of the chip surface. Therefore, the following:

==> type of fluids: the saturating fluid, and the flooding Fluid

==> type of sold materials that the chip is made of: glass, polymer, ...

==> size of the micro-tubes: smallest inner radius of the chip (r)

We have just published a novel equation that link Pc, K, and r hoping that it can also help you further, Which I have attached the preprint paper, also a PDF can be found on:

Please have an eye on papers dealing with ophiolites, particularly their plutonic parts at the bottom and the topmost volcanic parts. There are many reports treating the economic geology of Cu, Fe, Zn and Mn of this suite of rocks.

HGD

Hi

In general, Dear Rad Maythil

What happens is a first-order transition from one state of matter to another one, which implies energy, that energy has to go somewhere. The explosion is part of that energy converted into sound energy (sound waves).

I rather would say that is some coalescence of drops of water that finally come together but in a very fast fashion. Probably I am wrong, but nothing else comes to my mind now.

Interesting question.

Hi Michal,

You have probably reached an answer by now, but I also wanted to share my experience.

I had some sputum cells stored in Trizol (Thermofisher) and tried isolating RNA using Qiagen's RNAeasy kit. I got high yields of RNA from this kit. Therefore, I don't think using a different kit from your lysis buffer would be a problem as all these lysis buffers contain guanidine salt.

Dear Shafagat Mahmudova

I am very grateful for your kind proposal. I find this information to be helpful.

Hi, here is the promised report

Sebastián Grande