Physics Education - Science topic

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[In order to develop and verify a dielectric breakdown model for bulk insulators thicker than 100 μm, the knowledge of the dominating conduction mechanism at high electric fields, or respectively voltages, is necessary. The dielectric breakdown is the electrical failure of an insulator. In some existing breakdown models, ohmic conduction is assumed as dominating conduction mechanism. For verification, the dominating dc conduction mechanism of bulk insulators at room temperature was investigated by applying high voltages up to 70 kV to the insulator until dielectric breakdown occurs. Four conduction models, namely, ohmic, space charge limited, Schottky, and Poole-Frenkel conduction, were employed to identify the dominating conduction mechanism. Comparing the calculated permittivities from the Schottky and Poole-Frenkel coefficients with experimentally measured permittivity, Schottky and Poole-Frenkel conduction can be excluded as dominating conduction mechanism. Based on the current density voltage characteristics (J-V-curve) and the thickness-dependence of the current density, space charge limited conduction (SCLC) was identified to be the dominating conduction mechanism at high voltages leading to dielectric breakdown. As a consequence, breakdown models based on ohmic conduction are not appropriate to explain the breakdown of the investigated bulk insulators. Furthermore, the electrical failure of the examined bulk insulators can only be described correctly by a breakdown model which includes SCLC as conduction mechanism.]

Loopholes from physics to metaphysics refer to gaps or ambiguities in scientific understanding that invite philosophical interpretation. Examples include:

These loopholes highlight the interplay between scientific inquiry and philosophical speculation, suggesting that our understanding of reality may extend beyond empirical evidence.

Thank you, Dr. Alwielland Q. Bello, I have sent you an email regarding the confirmation of your interest, please check your inbox or spam folder

Physics teachers play a critical role in shaping students' perceptions and attitudes towards the subject. While estimations of physical quantities are undoubtedly important, overemphasizing them at the expense of deeper understanding and core principles can have a few negative consequences.

While estimation skills are valuable in Physics, teachers should strike a balance between teaching estimation techniques and providing a solid foundation in the fundamental principles and problem-solving methods of Physics. This approach can help maintain students' interest, foster a deeper understanding of the subject, and prepare them for more advanced studies and applications in Physics-related fields.

Dear Sergey Shevchenko

sorry to say, but I do not understand anything of your theory. Furthermore I see no explanation of the force on a charge in an E field.

Best regards

Jörn

Hello, again, Dulli Chandra Agrawal

I would suggest that you could contact that particular journal (eg email the office or office assistant/administration) to clarify.

Dear Prof. Macmillan Mafulul Josiah

With the recent advancement of online studies and virtual learning platforms, physics education major became a field where the use of new AI, programming and visualization skill can be combined, studied and used for the development of new ways to teach and learn in an interactive way, I guess.

There are already successful examples with the help of HTML5

Best Regards.

The following research article is related to this thread:

Best Regards.

There is no difference Prof. Manish Khare, we have two windows to watch the physical world, the classical & the quantum approaches, but there is a window, they are the Wigner probabilistic distributions.

Best Regards.

This paper is related to this thread:

Dear Mr khripov,

I prefer that we agree on the questions you ask.

For me F'=-kx is Hook's law.

For me F=ma is Newton's second law.

If in a given problem F=F', then -kx=ma.It is Newton's law particularized to the case where the force applied is that of a spring (Hook's law).

At static equilibrium, we have theoretically kx=mg. The theory tells you that kx=mg.

You want to check this relation experimentally. Fabricate identical objects of the same mass m. Hang on the spring one object, then two objects, then three objects, etc.... At the first elongation mark the elongation with a pen x=X0. You will notice experimentally that for 2m you will have an elongation of 2(X0), for 3m you will have 3(X0), etc ..... Plot on a graph the elongation of the spring as a function of the hooked mass. You will see that the curve is a straight line and that the slope of this line is (1/k) in the system of units you have used.

Conclusion:

1) You have therefore verified the linearity of x as a function of m and this is the verification you wanted to make.

2) You have deduced the value of k.

Important remark:

I hope I have answered your question.

Length contraction CAN be deduced by purely mechanical processes. The other Transformations are substituted by other mechanical means. For example, time dilation can be speed of light changes in different media density.

The following paper is worth mentioning in this thread:

Dear Anatoly,

If you are satisfied by the 1st Newton's law, which is basically equivalent to Galilean relativity, there is nothing to prove.

But if you mean to axiomatically construct a logically self-consistent mechanics without Galilean relativity, like non-Euclidean geometries proposed by mathematicians in 19th century, that should be possible, of course.

There are plenty of mechanical systems without translation invariance - a pendulum, a bent railway, a body in an "irremovable potential field", etc. But they are used to be well handled by existing formalism: systems with nonlinear constraints - by Lagrangian, potential motions - by Hamiltonian.

So, it is unobvious whether there is need for something new physically. And mathematically, it must be just part of non-Euclidean geometry, already well developed.

I have públished a preprint with the answer to this thread. The Lagrangian for D₄ point group symmetry.

A very complete review on Ertel potential vorticity theorem, thank you for suggesting its reading, Prof. Aref Wazwaz .

Best Regards.

Dear F. Hernandes

The Entropy (Greek - ἐντροπία-transformation, conversion, reformation, change) establishes the direct link between MICRO-scopic state (in other words orbital) of some (any) system and its MACRO-scopic state parameters (temperature, pressure, etc).

This is the Concept (from capital letter).

Its main feature – this is the ONLY entity in natural sciences that shows the development trend of any self-sustained natural process. It is the state function; it isn’t the transition function. That is why the entropy is independent from the transition route, it depends only from the initial state A and final state B for any system under consideration. Entropy has many senses.

In the mathematical statistics, the entropy is the measure of uncertainty of the probability distribution.

In the statistical physics, it presents the probability (so-caled *statistical sum*) of the existence of some (given) microscopic state (*statistical weight*) under the same macroscopic characteristics. This means that the system may have different amount of information, the macroscopic parameters being the same.

In the information approach, it deals with the information capacity of the system. That is why, the Father of Information theory Claude Elwood Shannon believed that the words *entropy* and *information* are synonyms. He defined entropy as the ratio of the lost information to the whole of information volume.

In the quantum physics, this is the number of orbitals for the same (macro)-state parameters.

In the management theory, the entropy is the measure of uncertainty of the system behavior.

In the theory of the dynamic systems, it is the measure of the chaotic deviation of the transition routes.

In the thermodynamics, the entropy presents the measure of the irreversible energy loss. In other words, it presents system’s efficiency (capacity for work). This provides the additivity properties for two independent systems.

Gnoseologically, the entropy is the inter-disciplinary measure of the energy (information) devaluation (not the price, but rather the very devaluation).

This way, the entropy is many-sided Concept. This provides unusual features of entropy.

What is the entropy dimension? The right answer depends on the approach. It is dimensionless figure in the information approach (Shannon defined it as the ratio of two uniform values; therefore it is dimensionless by definition). On the contrary, in the thermodynamics approach it has a dimension (energy to temperature J/K)

Is entropy parameter (fixed number) or this is a function? Once again, the proper answer depends on the approach (point of view). It is a number in the mathematical statistics (logarithm of the number of the admissible (unprohibited) system states, well-known sigma σ). At the same time, this is the function in the quantum statistics. Etc., etc.

So, be very cautious when you are operating with entropy.

Best wishes,

Emeritus Professor V. Dimitrov vasili@tauex.tau.ac.il

The following publication deserves special attention in this thread:

The Galilean invariance, Dr. Anatoly A Khripov, the laws of motion are the same in all inertial frames if there is no acceleration due to an external force. But sometimes a conservation law (momentum, or energy) is needed experimentally to be tested.

For example, the capillary movement without viscosity of the ⁴He isotope is based on the Galilean invariance of energy and momentum, despite it is a quantum liquid, showing how general is the Galilean invariance.

Sure. For example, the emissions of night lights maps contribute to an understanding of the geographic distribution of the population. The spectral emissions based on physical foundations.

Dear Sumit Bhowmick, you can use the semiclassical and geometrical approach of Lifshitz and Kaganov to explain conductivity in normal metals.

I don't know any related works in ceramics, where the Fermi surfaces can be open. However, there are the so-called molecular conductors.

Electron theory of metals and geometry by M. I. Kaganov and I. M. Lifshits Usp. Fiz. Nauk 129, 487 529 (November 1979)

I think that the teacher can use some applications that are online intended for learning the nomenclature, elaboration and spatial representation of molecules. There are also reaction simulators and laboratory practices where through color change you can explain and discuss with students the causes of a color change or a gas release. Also the teacher and students can make representations through animation programs that are useful to represent (model) some change or transformation of the matter.

To teach only distinguished students by any way even if you are failing Teacher. Such students are independents

Indeed it does Dear Prof. Mukesh Kumar,

Computational science increase students' and teachers' knowledge.

Dear Prof. Jair Ricardo De Moraes ,

In addition to all interesting answers in this thread, there is a book on physics education and misconceptions of students regarding many topics in elementary physics including preconceptions on kinetics and dynamics:

https://archive.org/details/QuestionsAndAnswersInSchoolPhysics

Dear Prof. Ziaedin Shafiei

As a conservative physicist & non-expert in relativity, I would like to answer your question in the following way, as it is elaborated in Landau & Lifschitz classical book: the Classical Theory of Fields. They introduced the idea of the light cone many years ago to described events in space-time in a general way. For them: time is an axis, space is another axis & 1/c the inverse speed of light is the slope of the plot. Hereby, my answer is: t is the time.

For the actual crisis, online physics examinations can be adopted Prof. Fakhri Abdul Salam Al-Ramadhan

To adapt appropriately, there are some VLP such as Khan Academy that offer physics courses with proven paths to examinations:

It is an interesting point Prof. Ziaedin Shafiei

Prof. R. Feynman has some issues about some applications of electromagnetism.

For example: According to Prof. Paulo Roberto Silva, in his famous lectures Prof. Feynman didn´t derive the Drude model for the electrical conductivity. We know that he worked a lot on superconductivity, and in the section called: Tensors chap 31. of 2 Volume Feynman Lectures, he briefly talks about the conductivity tensor j=σ E, but he calls it as tensor of inertia in analogy to the moment of inertia & there he stops to elaborate further. No mention to the Drude model.

Nice Dear Harshvardhan Singh

Following.

Nice Cotribution Franklin Felber

Nice Dear Joaquin Diaz-alonso

Following

Following

Nice Dear Yahaya Isa Bunkure

Following

I can recommend to look at Khan Academy appl Dear Prof. Jair Ricardo De Moraes

In my humble opinion KA-VLP is a good one, it has several online tools for teaching & learning: for instance, I directly quote an external web link [1]:

[1] https://blogs.umass.edu/onlinetools/learner-centered-tools/khan-academy/

Dear Colleagues,

This point is treated in electromagnetic wave propagation. The speed is limited by the transfer of energy from the magnetic form to the electric form and vice verse.

It is so that the wave is propagated by when the magnetic field collapses it builds the electric rings in the side space and when the electric rings collapse they build

magnetic rings beside them. This this build and collapse lasts some time then the waves takes time to propagate a specific distance.

Best wishes

One thing that comes to mind in regards to your primary question is hydrodynamic quantum analogs. These experiments were done at MIT in July of 2013 published in Physical Review Letters E. Dr. Daniel M. Harris displayed that "a coherent wavelike statistical behavior emerges from the complex underlying dynamics and that the probability distribution is prescribed by the Faraday wave mode of the corral." I hope this helps!

Interesting Prof. George Phillies Thanks for sharing. I saw the Project Log. Two questions. First Q. what about conservation laws in mechanics? Second Q. simbolic manipulation with a math GNU tool or a physics tool? Regards.

For the general case of refraction in a prism spectrometer, the angle of deflection depends on the refractive index of the prism, the vertex angle of the prism, and the orientation of the prism with respect to the incident beam.

The angle of deviation is a minimum when the prism is aligned symmetrically with respect to incident and refracted output beam directions. In this orientation the deviation depends only weakly on the rotation of the prism. To calculate the refractive index, we need only the deviation angle φ, and the prism vertex angle, θ.

n = sin( (θ+φ)/2 ) / sin(θ/2)

A small error, ε, in the prism orientation gives rise to a much smaller error in the deflection angle, proportional to the square of the orientation error ε². In practice, with reasonably careful adjustment, this error can be neglected.

I don't see how the minimum deviation angle could be made more sensitive to prism rotation, but if this were possible, it would increase the errors arising from measurements of the prism alignment.

The deviation angle does become extremely sensitive to incident angle when the internal refracted ray approaches the critical angle at either the entrance or exit face of the prism. The deviation angle is a maximum at the critical angle, where the beam will mostly be reflected rather than refracted through the prism.

I taught at the National Institute of Education in Singapore from 2003 to 2008. All Singapore science teachers are trained at the National Institute. My area of interest was in primary science education (grades K-6) . The training of primary teachers focused on preparing them to teach a specific curriculum, the national curriculum. The Singapore primary science curriculum model aligned closely with the Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS) developed in the US in the 1960's. Science Content, Science Process Skills and Science Themes gave structure to the K-6 curriculum. Singapore adapted the SCIS model to make the science content more rigorous and strengthened both the science content and process skills by adding accountability through assessment. I believe the structure of the Singapore's primary science curriculum can be successfully adapted and implemented in other countries. One particular strength of the Singapore primary science curriculum is its success in preparing students to pass the high stakes, national, 6th grade leaving test. The problem solving ability required in this test correlates highly and often surpasses that required in many international exams such as the TIMMS. There are limitations, such as the narrowing of the curriculum to what is covered in tests, and cultural constraints. As you point out, educational environments and resources play a large factor in the successful transfer of such structured curricula and their underlying theories.

Thank you very much

I badly explained my question. I mean the following task. A spring pulls some mass. The mass here is inertial one but according Einstein will curve space-time. The question is in that whether this curvature explains the body inertia (resistance to the velocity change) or NOT?

- When calculating ephemeris in the most accurate models of EPM and in some DE models, only miserable corrections are obtained from the PPN formalism. The Newtonian gravitation remains in the basement of celestial mechanics and of the GR. To my point of view, and stem from the fact, that geodetic lines in the presence of masses get bent, the Newton’s gravitation law suffers from a fundamental flaw due to violation of the inverse square law, underlying it. Let's try to go down from generalizations to specifics.

For example, discussing the modification of the law of Newton, I will argue that the mass is not an invariant, and the APPARENT gravitational mass depends on the distance to the observer Ma = M (1+ KR), where, for particular body, K = const. To verify the validity of the modified law, one will have to a) recalculate the masses of all celestial bodies in accordance with modified law, and b) get the Shapiro amendment, which will also depend on the (apparent) mass. As a result, using appropriate Shapiro delay values, we may get confirmation of the modified law.

Dear Sir,

To the point how to construct.

Let us take component wise

Forces = Air frictional force if your relative velocity is high like 1m/s, frictional force from ground and touching surfaces, EM forces, Temperature gradients, Electrical Gradients, Gravitational forces.

Maintain constant Temperature that is generally room temperature- If temperature gradients exist then, source of it should be eliminated or considered in the system.

Use Glass material polished with talcum powder.

If any EM material Exist that is taken care by glass itself.

If high velocity Evacuate the chamber i.e. create vacuum.

Cover other surfaces also with talcum powder.

X & Z components are taken care by these.

Y component gravity is left that comes vey expensive.

So to eliminate gravity either use Archemedies Principle or do it simulation if real is not compulsory.

The permittivity at low frequency is a consequence of all absorptions at higher frequencies (as mentioned by Jerzy Antoni Krupka , due to the Kramers-Kronig Relations). So you have to choose a material with strong absorption at a (sometimes much if the oscillator is strongly damped) higher frequency than the one you are interested in...

Dear Preston,

Thank you very much for your papers

Anatoly

At rest means velocities vanish; at equilibrium means forces (and torques) vanish. Newton's second law implies that IF forces (and torques) vanish, velocities don't change; so if the velocities are zero they stay zero, if they're non-zero, they remain non-zero.

This is a homework assignment in elementary mechanics...

In our country, the pharmaceutical industry can be considered as a "true" chemical industry which has become reputable & succeeded in selling medicines to Europe as well as covering many local market demands.

While teaching industrial chemistry, I explain that most of the pharmaceutical industries "worldwide" are of the batch type so as our industries here. Students are required to understand, through examples, the characteristics of an industrial batch industry together with what items of equipment it will have & how these tools are operated.

A typical chemical industry must have a section for R&D "research & development" and our local pharmaceutical industries do have that from information I gathered from our graduates who work there. Therefore, students are required to know examples of the duties of the R&D section in an industry and the type of "applied" research that is carried out there.

Students of the industrial chemistry course ought to know the chemical names, the structural formulas, and the function of the most famous drugs such as Aspirin, Panadol, paracetamol , penicillin, amoxicillin…etc.

Even though it is an introductory course, students do not appreciate its value until they graduate & become fortunate enough to be employed in a chemical industry "pharmaceutical or other industries such as paints, plastics…etc.".

Doing a statistic analysis on the student answers to test questions can tell you what portions of the curriculum that the students are not grasping well. This can be used as a tool to strengthen those areas in you lessons.

To the original question: the two-way speed of light can clearly be measured with no issues: a light beam goes from source A to mirror B at distance L and then back to source A. A clock at A measures the time elapsed and always finds 2L/c, with c independent of reference frame.

So far, this is experiment, well confirmed in many different ways.

One-way speed of light always has some kind of problem, since we need to say when two distant clocks mark the same time. It turns out that it is a consistent convention to assume that clocks can be synchronised in such a way as to make the one-way speed of light constant.

However, to make contact with those who mentioned the Sagnac effect, this consistency only holds in *inertial* reference frames, not in rotating ones. In rotating reference frames, or other non-inertial frames, you generally cannot consistently synchronise clocks in such a way as to have a constant one-way speed of light.

No there isn't. All this is understood and taught in physics courses, so it would be useful to actually study quantum mechanics, instead of trying to guess.

These lectures: http://www.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/III_toc.html might be a good place to start.

Cf. also https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/physics/8-04-quantum-physics-i-spring-2013/

It is time for someone to do a serious study of these events. Not just one investigator, but many of various disciplines and specialties.

People have already solved the disappearance of dinosaurs, why not these phenomena?

Before you start investigating textbooks and study programs in fields of science, you should seriously contemplate whether you want to invest your life and talents in these areas.

The Standard Model of Particle Physics were completed in the mid-1970's. Try to explore which new, experimentally verified, ideas have emerged in the field of theoretical particle physics since then. Likewise, string theory was invented in the late 1960's and superstring theory during 1970's. Try to find out what these theories have contributed to observed physics.

The recent discovery of gravitational waves have opened new ways to explore cosmology and astro(particle) physics. This will hopefully lead to new insights and increased activity, both observationally and theoretically.

Having graduated in engineering physics and also obtained a graduate certificate in teaching science, I think the subject is of interest for me.

I think linking with practice is essential for engineers. Go to the essential and never rush materials, listening to student and asking question. Providing clear practical demonstration with analogies.

Also this could help

Jair, 

The only barrier that may exist is students not being able to understand the teacher  because of the language linguistic difference. I have personally witness this and it can be frustrating to students who have difficulties reading and writing. Otherwise, the science classroom is no longer the science teacher lecturing in front of the class but utilizing the 5E Model, with interactive smart board games and experiments, and PhET simulations.

Robin Ruiz

I am inclined to say phenomenon based learning is good for physics teaching as it is a challenging subject and from my experience in other content areas, students are fascinated by new experiences and happenings. You have by nod here!

Best regards,

Debra

I wonder instead if  the filter leaks more easily in the near IR; anyway it seems to me normal that you measure the highest intensity around the yellow because the detector has possbly the highest sensitivity in that range and the flame has actually a relevant yellow emission, even if lower compared with NIR

Dear Urban,

as mentioned above, this is very good idea to have such a kind of network!

If you need someone from Czech Republic, let me know. I am not for full time job a astronomy education researcher, but astronomy education as general is one of my area of interest.

To contact me, please, use ResearchGate or email kehar@kmt.zcu.cz

Best Regards

Ota Kehar

Faculty of Education

University of West Bohemia in Pilsen

Czech Republic

Charles Francis,

I am sorry for any provocative or challenging statements – or perhaps not! My experience is that being provocative (within limits of course) often brings out engaged and honest responses that could provide a deeper understanding even if not ending in full agreement.

I have always been careful to define in each case what I mean with quantum, classical, frequentist, Bayesian etc. probability before concluding anything while you always refer to probability as a god-given concept always applicable.

At the end of the day, we could reduce measured results indefinitely perfecting our subjective information of the experiment using whatever statistics available, but still not knowing, when sending the next silver atom through the S-G apparatus, on which sceen the atom will be collected.

QM is an axiomatic deductive theory that has a unique mathematical formulation. One of the axioms concerns the wavefunction and defines a probability concept that is unlike any classical probability version.

The physical interpretation is a separate process from the mathematical formulation. In e.g. the Bohr interpretation the experimental apparatus is classical and the task is to equate a quantum measurement with classical end results, after the experiment is finished and documented.

The novel development of quantum cryptology, quantum computing, interferometry, teleportation etc. show that the notion of measurement evolves in subtle but fundamental ways imparting exacting references to concepts like properties carried by quantum particles, the meaning of localization, or the violation of Bell’s inequality, and the fundamental assumption of realism, i.e. can reality and information be separated from each other.

I agree with Robert – it is time to return to the thread.

To @Paul and to the other users:

You cannot explain that one photon goes through both slits, because we don't know this. We don't know what is the wave-function. The standard quantum mechanics tells us only what we can get if we measure. All the rest is speculations.

What you can tell the students is that in order to get interference, both slits should be open. If only one slit is open we don't get interference. Therefore, whatever we can infer is that something passes through both slits, and in consequence we get interference. But what passes and through which slit, we don't know.

This is exactly the domain of research named fundaments of QM. We try to investigate these issues but for the moment we don't have answers. We don't know what we have in our apparatus before we measure.

Practice teaching of Education students in the Philippines is usually done on the first semester of the fourth (and final) year of their bachelor's degree program. Usually, there are two training / practice teaching supervisors assigned for each practice teacher: one from the sending school and another from the host school. Some relevant papers are provided in the links below:

si por supuesto le recomiendo el sitio de la Universidad TEcnológica de Monterrey México donde utilizan simuladores también las universidades marítimas tienen  simuladores para la enseñanza de tripulaciones en escenarios difíciles.

We have recently also come to the topic of relativistic thermodynamics. It is surprising that it is not included in the basic courses. It is not difficult to combine these two approaches and one obtains interesting consequences. It is interesting that one intensive variable, pressure, is invariant, while temperature is contracting.

On the other hand, it is clear that entropy must be invariant, since it is equal to log W(n) and also from the second law of TD.

Going to statistical mechanics, it is clear that Mawell-Boltzman distribution cannot be true, because it would allow particles with v > c. Thus, a straightforward generalization is Maxwell-Jüttner distribution, still equal to exp(-E/kT), but with relativistic energy.

These points are important enough to be discussed in some courses on advanced thermodynamics or relativity courses.

Bonjour Dr Lee!  Social Justice Through Teaching Practices and Activities (Brian O’Sullivan, Reva Joshee & John MacDonald, 2005). https://www.oise.utoronto.ca/cld/UserFiles/File/Social%20Justice%20Through%20Teaching%20Practices%20and%20Activities.pdf  - It may be dated. Best regards: James

Here are some weblink(s) or pdf files that I searched on the internet that might assist with your research in physical education.

I think no single teaching method/technique would help you. Actually, I tried both methods with one of my colleagues who has difficulties in understanding statistics and I failed. To me, graphical method works fine;I can cover the black areas and move on. However, this technique does not work with my colleagues.

In general, I may share some points of my own experience:

This is my own experience. Please search for scientific papers that may give you more trusted results.

Best Regards,

Ausubel is a good source for that piece in regard to previewing ("(priming" in behavior theory, "activation" in neuroscience).  Previewing can be a stage/tool in the input stage of a system (increase in receptivity/relevance to curriculum).  A point here: as much as possible make the analysis and discussion generic, and separate diligently the topics of instruction (process and process tools) vs. curriculum (content).  Generic language may seem abstract at first but exemplary specific content can be used in your subject area.  Generics apply to all teachers and content at every level.  Be clear at the outset about the context of your inquiry:  instruction or curriculum, but not both.  Instruction theory applies to any and all processes used to convey curriculum content, but curriculum theory applies only to content understanding.

A good second-order Cybernetics article is: 

Second-Order Economics as an Example of Second-Order Cybernetics Cybernetics and Human Knowing. Vol. 18, nos. 3-4, Cybernetics and Human Knowing. Vol. 18, nos. 3-4, pp?

The "First principles" thread is also very good in education:

Merrill, M. D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(3), 43-59.

Merrill, M.D. (1994). Instructional design theory. Englewood Cliffs: Educational Technology Publica- tions.

Reigeluth, C.M. (1999). The elaboration theory: guidance for scope and sequence decisions. In C.M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory (Vol. II) (pp. 425–453). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Typical courses on "Learning," "education" and "teaching" deal with curriculum and almost never on "instruction" per se.  This confusion leads to thinking that each curriculum area has its own way of teaching, but the deep structure of principles are the same.  Once one understands the deep structure framework then any curriculum can be hung on that framework.  A kindergarten teacher and a teaching neurosurgeon us the same cybernetic framework for instruction.