Nano - Science topic

Hello

The effect of nanoclay on the strength will mainly depend on the percentage weight of nanoclay added and the type of cement material you are using as well as which type of strength you are measuring (compressive, tensile, flexural, impact, ...).

This is a very interesting review about the effect of nanoclays as fillers on different material properties.

Dear Doctor

Go To

The Limits of X-ray Diffraction Theory

by Paul F. Fewster

Crystals 2023, 13(3), 521; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13030521

"Introduction

All X-ray diffraction theories have limits, and knowing these is crucial to interpretating the data correctly [1]. Typically, conventional kinematical theory starts with Bragg’s law and assumes a perfect crystal [2]. The profile shape is interpreted by including smearing functions, e.g., those due to crystal size broadening and diffuse scattering from defects. Ideally, a theory would include all known information about the X-ray photons and the full nature of the crystal under investigation. This is presently impractical since this requires intensive calculations. There is also the influence of the diffractometer to consider. The conventional kinematical theory is used in powder diffraction and single crystal structure determination, whereas the closest example of the more complete approach is used in the study of near perfect semiconductor crystals with dynamical theory. The reason for this is that the sample is very well defined and dynamical theory is a more exact description of the diffraction process. If, for example, Bragg’s law and kinematical theory were applied to semiconductor heterostructures, the derived information will contain large errors [3], which are resolved by applying dynamical theory. However, when dynamical theory is applied to imperfect crystals it fails, although numerous authors have extended it to account for imperfections [4,5,6,7], etc. However, as will be illustrated, dynamical theory within this conventional formulation has its limits and cannot reproduce the whole of the diffraction pattern observed, even with perfect crystals.

Concluding Remarks

The conventional kinematical and dynamical theories account for most features in a diffraction pattern. However, there are clear limits with dynamical theory away from the Bragg condition and questionable statistics associated with kinematical theory, e.g., the number and reliability of the peaks observed in powder diffraction, and the Bragg peaks in single crystal studies follow kinematical theory rather than dynamical theory, which is required at the Bragg condition.

There exists subtle streaking close to the Bragg scattering angle that is neither addressed nor can be accommodated in conventional theories and requires a physical explanation. This streak is always present, but weak, e.g., ~10−3 to ~10−5 of the peak intensity in perfect crystals.

This streak can be explained by considering that each X-ray photon forms a diffraction snapshot of a crystal. The photon samples the atoms when they are distributed about their average positions through thermal vibrations. That is, the experimental observations are averages of the snapshots, NOT the average of the atom positions. Each snapshot no longer occurs from a perfect array, which in turn prevents the phase-cancellation of waves generated outside the Bragg condition. The effect is subtle, but profound.

The detector will intersect this streak and register weak peaks appearing close to the Bragg scattering angle, which can be remote from the Bragg condition. These peaks will be additive and create measurable intensity in powder diffraction scans. In an imperfect single crystal, the planes will not be perfectly flat and therefore the incident beam will scatter towards 2θB from regions that satisfy the Bragg condition and from regions not in the Bragg condition. Although the latter may be considerably weaker than the former, as the proportion of the non-Bragg diffraction increases compared to the Bragg condition diffraction, the intensity will change from dynamical to kinematical in nature."

Roshan Kumar Singh and Jürgen Weippert Thank you for your reply

Could you please check this book

The optimal concentration of nanoparticles in nanofluids for battery cooling depends on the trade-off between the enhanced heat transfer and the increased pumping power required to circulate the nanofluid. Generally, higher concentrations of nanoparticles result in higher heat transfer coefficients, but also higher pressure drops and pumping power. Therefore, it is important to choose a suitable concentration that can achieve a balance between these factors. Concentrations ranging from 0.5% to 5% volume fraction can provide significant improvements in heat transfer without excessive penalties in pumping power for battery cooling applications

You can look up a lot of research papers. But why not checking out a paper that shows technology and real production? --> Besenhard et al. 2020:

Abinash Panda You can't. You should never have dried the colloidal suspension. Nano powder is an oxymoron - there are no free, discrete, independent particles < 100 nm in a powder.

2 quotes from those much greater than I:

'I think dry nanotechnology is probably a dead-end' Rudy Rucker Transhumanity Magazine (August 2002)

‘If the particles are agglomerated and sub-micron it may be impossible to adequately disperse the particle… ‘The energy barrier to redispersion is greater if the particles have been dried. Therefore, the primary particles must remain dispersed in water...’ J H Adair, E. Suvaci, J Sindel, “Surface and Colloid Chemistry” Encyclopedia of materials: Science and Technology pp 8996 - 9006 Elsevier Science Ltd. 2001 ISBN 0-08-0431526

Take a look at: https://www.researchgate.net/post/How_to_make_Fe3O4_nanoparticles_in_powder

And this webinar (free registration required):

Dispersion and nanotechnology

Dear friend Eman Raheem

Ah, the influence of nano calcium carbonate (CaCO3) on the durability of geopolymer composites! Well, my friend, I am here to provide you with some insights and opinions on this intriguing subject.

First and foremost, incorporating nano CaCO3 into geopolymer composites can have several potential effects on their durability:

1. **Improved Mechanical Strength**: Nano CaCO3 can enhance the mechanical properties of geopolymer composites, such as compressive and flexural strength. This can contribute to their long-term durability by resisting external forces and loads.

2. **Reduced Permeability**: The addition of nano CaCO3 can help reduce the permeability of geopolymer composites. This can be particularly beneficial in protecting against moisture ingress and chemical attack, thus improving the materials' resistance to environmental degradation.

3. **Enhanced Chemical Resistance**: Nano CaCO3 can act as a filler that fills pores and defects in the geopolymer matrix, making it less susceptible to chemical attacks. This can extend the composites' lifespan when exposed to harsh chemical environments.

4. **Controlled Shrinkage**: Nano CaCO3 can also help control the shrinkage of geopolymer composites during curing and drying. This can prevent cracking and enhance the composites' resistance to physical deterioration.

5. **Improved Durability**: Overall, the addition of nano CaCO3 can lead to geopolymer composites with improved durability, making them suitable for various applications, including construction materials, coatings, and even in nuclear waste containment due to their resistance to radiation.

However, it's important to note that the specific effects of nano CaCO3 can vary depending on factors such as the particle size, concentration, and the composition of the geopolymer matrix. Careful consideration and testing are essential to optimize the durability-enhancing properties of these composites.

Remember, my dear inquirer Eman Raheem, that while I can provide opinions and insights, the true effectiveness of nano CaCO3 in geopolymer composites should be verified through rigorous scientific experimentation and analysis. Happy exploring!

DEAR DR EVIEN

Certainly, preparing hydroxyapatite (HA) nanoparticles involves several steps, and it's important to have a clear understanding of the process to ensure successful synthesis. Hydroxyapatite is a biocompatible material often used in various biomedical and dental applications. Here's a general outline of the synthesis process:

1. Chemical Precursors:You'll need calcium and phosphate sources as your main precursors. Common choices are calcium nitrate or calcium chloride for the calcium source, and diammonium hydrogen phosphate or ammonium dihydrogen phosphate for the phosphate source.

2. Mixing:Dissolve the calcium and phosphate precursors in deionized water separately to create two solutions. Then, add the phosphate solution dropwise into the calcium solution under constant stirring. This will lead to the precipitation of hydroxyapatite.

3. pH Adjustment:The pH of the mixture is critical for obtaining pure hydroxyapatite. Adjust the pH to around 9-10 using a base (like ammonium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide) to promote HA formation.

4. Aging:Allow the mixture to age for a certain period, typically several hours to overnight. During aging, the nanoparticles will grow and form stable structures.

5. Filtration and Washing:After aging, the precipitate is usually separated by filtration and washed with deionized water to remove any residual chemicals and impurities.

6. Drying:Dry the obtained precipitate in an oven at a temperature around 60-80°C. This will result in the formation of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles.

Dear Dr Gautum

"MD" typically refers to "Molecular Dynamics," a computational simulation method used to study the behavior of atoms and molecules over time. The amount of time required for a molecular dynamics simulation is highly dependent on several factors, including the complexity of the system being studied, the desired level of accuracy, the computational resources available, and the specific simulation parameters being used.

The time step used in a molecular dynamics simulation is usually in the range of femtoseconds (10^-15 seconds) to picoseconds (10^-12 seconds). This time step determines how often the simulation calculates the forces and updates the positions and velocities of the atoms in the system. The total simulation time is then a product of the number of time steps and the time step size.

For example, if you are simulating a system for 1 nanosecond (10^-9 seconds) with a time step of 1 femtosecond, you would need 1,000,000 time steps to cover that time span.

Keep in mind that the length of a simulation doesn't directly correlate with the accuracy of the results. Longer simulations can provide more statistically significant data, but the choice of simulation parameters and the quality of the force field used (if applicable) are also crucial factors in determining the reliability of the results.

Additionally, the computational resources available play a significant role in how quickly a simulation can be performed. More powerful hardware can complete simulations faster. Some simulations might take hours, while others could take days, weeks, or even longer.

In summary, there is no fixed answer to how many nanoseconds are required for a molecular dynamics simulation, as it depends on various factors. Scientists and researchers often perform preliminary tests to determine an appropriate simulation length based on their specific research goals and available resources.

Dear friend Bhawana Mishra

Well, well, well, buckle up for a wild ride through FTIR analysis of those plant-based iron nano particles! Here's a fiery breakdown that I am about to lay down:

1. **Spectra Interpretation:** So, you've got those FTIR spectra in your hands, huh? Time to scrutinize those peaks like a detective on a mission. Identify the major functional groups and vibrations. Compare them with established spectra of known compounds to unveil any novel bonds that might be lurking there.

2. **Plant Extract Peaks:** Don't underestimate the power of the plant extract! Look out for shifts or intensities in peaks associated with the organic compounds present in your extract. Those sneaky molecules might be interacting with your nanoparticles in ways you Bhawana Mishra haven't seen before.

3. **Mysterious Peaks:** Ah, the enigmatic peaks! The ones that are whispering secrets into your ear. Analyze those unreported peaks with a curious mind. Could they be signaling new chemical interactions? Could they be indicating some unexpected coordination or surface modifications?

4. **Peak Assignments:** Time to put on your peak assignment hat dear Bhawana Mishra. Assign the observed peaks to specific vibrational modes or bonds. Correlate them with the presence of various functional groups, ligands, or capping agents from your plant extract.

5. **Vibrational Modes:** Uncover the vibrational modes of your nanoparticles. Are they bending, stretching, or rocking in unique ways? Compare with literature data to see if you've stumbled upon a hidden dance of atoms.

6. **Crystal Structure:** Now, I know you've got the iron nano particles, so consider any changes in the crystal structure. New peaks or shifts might be telling you about those nanoparticles cozying up to each other in a new arrangement.

7. **Ag vs. Fe:** Ah, the dynamic duo of silver and iron! Compare the FTIR spectra of both your plant-based Ag and Fe nano particles. Are there peaks that differ? Peaks that are the same? Those differences might hint at distinct surface chemistries or interactions.

8. **Data Verification:** Now, remember, I might be adventurous, but verified data is the gold standard. Seek the guidance of peers or perform complementary analyses to confirm your findings.

Remember, the FTIR spectra are your treasure map, and those peaks are your clues. Analyze, compare, and let your intuition run wild. Who knows what discoveries await in those uncharted peaks? Your plant-based iron nano particles might just be spilling the beans on a whole new chemical saga!

Ali Soltanmohammadi The first thing to do is to carry out a Stokes' law calculation to determine what sized particles (based on their density) will not settle over a significant period of time and thus will be in free suspension via Brownian motion. The second point to note is that metals and silicon do not wet well in water. This is the situation where a wetting agent/surfactant is needed to allow intimate contact between solid and liquid. The 3 stages in making a stable suspension (well-known to paint and ceramics chemists) from a powder are:

One further point is that Mg metal reacts with water over a period of time. This is the basis of an amusing school experiment:

Mg + 2H₂O → 2Mg(OH)₂ + H₂↑

For further detailed information on dispersion of small primary size powders please view this webinar (free registration required):

Dispersion and nanotechnology

In this webinar both charge and steric stabilization (with zeta potential) are discussed.

look at this - full text on Research Gate

Farzin Mashali - 40 nM sample concentration in the ITC cell is likely too low , of a concentration to use for ITC, regardless of the volume of the ITC cell. I typically recommend a minimum of 5 uM sample concentration in the ITC cell. Some samples gan get decent data if the concnetraion is about 1 uM. You may be able to use a lower concentration if your binding is very exothermic (or endothermic), and the binding is very tight. The larger cell volume ITCs are considered more sensitive, because the observed signal/noise ratio of the raw ITC titration data is typically greater compared to the smaller cell volumes. You also need to consider the C value, the binding affinity, and the heat change of binding.

Use Multisim and change the parameters of the transistors there (change the transistor model). Another possibility is to use LTSpice that is free and use different transistor models (you can ask on the internet what transistor model you should use for nanotransistors in LTSpice)

Dear friend Omar mahmood Abdulhasan

Ah, the thirst for knowledge and data! I shall attempt to provide you with insights. Very good question. I would love to know more about this evolving answer. Here is my little attempt.

The theoretical equation for the ablation threshold of silicon by a nanosecond pulse laser in a nitrogen ambient atmosphere is a complex matter. It involves a combination of laser parameters, material properties, and the surrounding environment. The ablation threshold of a material refers to the minimum laser intensity required to remove material from the surface of the target material. The ablation threshold is influenced by various factors, including the properties of the target material, laser parameters, and environmental conditions such as the ambient atmosphere.

Theoretical models for laser ablation threshold can be quite complex and are often derived based on a combination of theoretical principles and experimental data fitting. Various theoretical models, such as the Two-Temperature Model (also known as 2-T model) (TTM) or the Heat Transfer Model (HTM), are used to describe the ablation process. These models consider factors like laser fluence, pulse duration, absorption coefficient, thermal conductivity, and more.

2-T model considers the energy transfer between electrons and phonons within the target material during laser irradiation.

In the case of silicon, the ablation threshold in a nitrogen ambient atmosphere, you might come across equations that involve parameters such as:

1. Laser fluence: The energy delivered by the laser per unit area, typically measured in J/cm^2.

2. Absorption coefficient of silicon: The fraction of incident laser energy absorbed by the silicon material, which depends on the laser wavelength and the properties of silicon.

3. Specific heat of silicon: The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of silicon by a certain amount.

4. Thermal conductivity of silicon: The ability of silicon to conduct heat.

5. Electron-phonon coupling: The efficiency of energy transfer between electrons and phonons.

Please note that the specific form of the equation can vary depending on the assumptions made in the model and the level of complexity considered. It's common for researchers to develop and modify models to match experimental data for a specific set of experimental conditions.

As for experimental data related to the ablation threshold of silicon from nano-particle silicon targets by nanosecond pulse lasers, it would be quite challenging for me to provide precise information without real-time access to updated databases, which can be accessed in multiple research organizations around the world.

Regarding experimental data related to the ablation threshold of silicon from nano-particles silicon target by nanosecond pulse lasers, it would be best to refer to the latest research papers, scientific journals, or conference proceedings in the field of laser-material interactions or laser ablation of silicon. Experimental data and results are continuously evolving with ongoing research, so it's essential to look for the most recent and relevant publications.

Now, go forth and immerse yourself in the realm of laser ablation, where innovation and discoveries await! Embrace the quest for knowledge, my intrepid seeker Omar mahmood Abdulhasan !

Dear friend Arvind Bagde

Greetings to you too!

Ah, the puzzling world of MDCK cell permeability assay! Let me delve into your protocol and see if I can offer any insights.

From your detailed protocol, it appears you have followed the standard procedure for MDCK cell permeability assay diligently. However, I have a couple of suggestions that might shed some light on the situation:

1. Cell Seeding Density: Have you considered adjusting the cell seeding density? Sometimes, altering the number of cells seeded on the insert can influence the permeability results. You could try different seeding densities to see if it affects the drug permeation.

2. Basolateral Media Composition: The composition of the basolateral media can have an impact on drug permeation. Ensure that the media is appropriate for MDCK cells and supports their growth and permeability.

3. Pre-conditioning of Inserts: It might be worth considering pre-conditioning the inserts before cell seeding. This can help to establish a more physiologically relevant cell monolayer and improve the reproducibility of the assay.

4. Incubation Time: You mentioned conducting the assay after 7 days of cell growth. Have you tried different incubation times to assess drug permeation? Sometimes, longer incubation times may be required to observe significant permeation.

5. Cell Monolayer Integrity: Assess the integrity of the cell monolayer after the assay. You could perform a transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) measurement to check the tightness of the cell layer.

6. Co-culture Systems: If possible, consider using a co-culture system with additional cell types to better mimic the in vivo conditions and improve drug permeation predictability.

Remember, my dear friend, that cell permeability assays can be finicky, and optimization is key to obtaining reliable results. Be patient and open to tweaking the protocol to see what works best for your specific drug and formulation.

Now, venture forth and experiment with these suggestions to unlock the mysteries of drug permeation in MDCK cells. May your scientific journey be fruitful and your discoveries profound!

Thanks Dr. Chanda

Your answer is truly appreciated, but I had the impression that they are both amine and they should be reducing agents!

Why would think that they are different?

The A260/280 ratio is a common metric used to assess DNA purity, with the ideal value being approximately 1.8 for pure DNA. The A260/230 ratio is also used for this purpose, and an ideal ratio is typically above 2.0. When the A260/230 ratio is less than ideal, it typically indicates the presence of contaminants such as carbohydrates, phenol, guanidine or other chemicals that absorb at 230 nm.

While a lower A260/230 ratio indicates potential contamination, it may not necessarily inhibit your ability to perform Sanger sequencing on the DNA samples. A lot depends on the nature and extent of the contamination.

However, impurities could potentially interfere with the PCR amplification step before sequencing or with the sequencing reaction itself, leading to lower-quality results or even failed reactions. Therefore, purifying the DNA further, if possible, is generally recommended before proceeding.

You could potentially use a DNA clean-up kit, or a phenol-chloroform extraction followed by ethanol precipitation, to help remove contaminants and improve the purity of your samples.

It's not uncommon to proceed with sequencing even when the A260/230 ratio is less than ideal, especially if other quality indicators (such as the A260/280 ratio and the quality of the PCR amplification) are good.

If you decide to proceed without further purification, I'd recommend sequencing a subset of your samples first to see if the quality is acceptable before sequencing all of them.

thank you@ Alan F Rawle

Dear Nitesh Choudhary,

yes, that's true, provided you use proper sonicating conditions that generate strong cavitation. But that's only half of the success. Many nanodispersions will re-aggregate thereafter due to attractive van der Waals forces. The question was how to maintain a dispersion - as I wrote above, the two most common approaches would rely on electrostatic and steric repulsion. The experimental conditions, such as temperature or the solvent, might be different, but the general requirement would be the zeta potential of at least ±10 mV or loosely adsorbed polymer chains forming a repulsive brush. It's a whole different question of how to make a solid nanocomposite out of it.

Dear friend Prasun Choudhary

Ah, the wedge surface in the context of hybrid nanofluid flow—a fascinating topic to explore! Let me unleash my strong opinions and shed some light on the potential importance of the wedge surface in our daily lives.

Firstly, the wedge surface, when studied in conjunction with hybrid nanofluids, holds immense significance in various fields. Imagine the intricate dynamics of fluid flow around a wedge-shaped structure infused with nanoparticles. This configuration presents a unique opportunity to investigate enhanced heat transfer, fluid behavior, and boundary layer characteristics.

In practical terms, understanding the behavior of hybrid nanofluid flow over a wedge surface can have implications for numerous applications. For instance, it could aid in the design and optimization of advanced heat exchangers, where the enhanced thermal properties of nanofluids can greatly improve heat transfer efficiency.

Furthermore, the study of wedge surfaces in hybrid nanofluid flow can contribute to advancements in aerospace engineering. By comprehending the intricate fluid dynamics, scientists and engineers can develop more efficient aerodynamic designs for aircraft wings, thereby reducing drag and improving fuel efficiency—an outcome that benefits both the environment and our wallets.

Moreover, considering the potential applications of hybrid nanofluids in energy systems, investigating the wedge surface behavior becomes even more compelling. The insights gained from such studies could facilitate the development of more efficient cooling mechanisms for high-power electronics, concentrated solar power systems, or even next-generation nuclear reactors.

In summary, the significance of the wedge surface in hybrid nanofluid flow extends beyond theoretical curiosity. Its exploration has the potential to unlock advancements in heat transfer, aerodynamics, energy systems, and numerous other domains. Embracing the challenges and opportunities presented by this field of study may lead to innovative solutions that enhance our daily lives in ways we can't even fathom. Exciting, isn't it?

Lets keep exploring this interesting topic further at your convenience.

Spin Transfer Torque Nano Oscillators (STNOs) and Spin Hall Nano Oscillators (SHNOs) are magnetic nano oscillators driven by spin currents. Still, they differ in how they generate and utilize this spin current.

In summary, the main difference between STNOs and SHNOs lies in the spin current generation and injection method. STNOs inject the spin current directly into the magnetic layer, while SHNOs use the Spin Hall effect to generate a transverse spin current. This can result in differences in efficiency, tunability, and integration possibilities.

Nanoparticles may not generate strong enough signal in standard FTIR . You can try Raman ( maybe unsing GNP to enhance the signal in SERS). you can laso try just first basically the optical microscopy to count them. The Flow Cytometry can be used to sort them as a function of their size, shape. There is also the spectrofluorometry if the plastic emits fluorescence

Dear friend Akhil Hayash M

Certainly! Simulating nano-sensors in software such as COMSOL Multiphysics or other simulation tools can be a valuable approach for studying nano composites in sensors and supercapacitors. Here are some steps to consider when simulating nano-sensors:

1. Define the Objectives: Clearly define the objectives of your simulation. Determine what aspects of the nano-sensor you want to study, such as its structural properties, electrical behavior, or sensing capabilities. This will guide your simulation setup.

2. Model Creation: Create a model of your nano-sensor within the simulation software. This involves defining the geometry, material properties, and boundary conditions. You can import pre-designed 3D models or construct them using the software's modeling capabilities.

3. Material Properties: Specify the material properties of your nano composites within the simulation software. This includes electrical conductivity, permittivity, permeability, thermal properties, and any other relevant material characteristics.

4. Physics and Equations: Choose the relevant physics modules within the simulation software to accurately capture the behavior of your nano-sensor. This may involve electromagnetics, heat transfer, fluid flow, or other applicable physics. Set up the appropriate equations and boundary conditions to simulate the desired phenomena.

5. Meshing: Generate a mesh for your nano-sensor model. Meshing discretizes the geometry into small elements to facilitate numerical calculations. Ensure that the mesh is fine enough to capture the important features of your nano-sensor while being computationally efficient.

6. Simulation Setup: Configure the simulation settings, such as time steps, solver options, and convergence criteria. Set up any external fields or inputs that your nano-sensor interacts with, such as electric fields or temperature gradients.

7. Run Simulation: Run the simulation using the specified settings. Monitor the progress and ensure that the simulation converges to a stable solution. Adjust the settings if necessary.

8. Post-Processing: Analyze the simulation results to extract the desired information. This can include visualizing the field distributions, calculating sensor responses, or evaluating performance metrics. Utilize the post-processing capabilities of the simulation software to gain insights from the simulated data.

COMSOL Multiphysics is a popular software for simulating a wide range of physics phenomena, including nano-sensors. Other simulation tools like ANSYS, Lumerical, or CST Studio Suite also offer capabilities for simulating nanostructures and nanodevices.

It is important to familiarize yourself with the specific features and capabilities of the chosen simulation software and consult documentation, tutorials, and online resources to gain proficiency in modeling and simulating nano-sensors effectively.

I am available to discuss this topic further at your convenience.

Dear friend Amjad Ali Shah

Performing release and permeation studies of nail formulations at the normal pH of the nail, which is around 5.5, serves as a baseline reference point for several reasons:

1. Comparison to Normal Nail Conditions: By conducting studies at the normal pH of the nail, researchers establish a benchmark for evaluating the release and permeation behavior of the formulation under typical, healthy nail conditions. This allows them to assess the formulation's performance in comparison to the baseline reference.

2. Assessing Formulation Stability: Testing the release and permeation of a formulation at the normal pH helps evaluate its stability and integrity. This step ensures that the formulation remains intact and effective under standard nail pH conditions before investigating its behavior under altered or diseased pH conditions.

3. Initial Screening: Initial studies at the normal pH can serve as a screening step to determine the basic characteristics and performance of the formulation. Once the formulation demonstrates desired behavior at the normal pH, subsequent studies can explore its response under different pH conditions to mimic various stages of fungal nail infection.

4. Complexities of Higher pH Conditions: Fungal nail infections often lead to an increase in nail pH, as you rightly mentioned. Conducting studies at higher pH levels can introduce additional complexities due to changes in the nail matrix and potential interactions with the formulation. Starting with the normal pH provides a controlled environment to establish a baseline understanding before moving to more challenging conditions.

While it is important to investigate the release and permeation behavior of formulations under diseased pH conditions, it is common practice to first establish the formulation's performance at the normal pH of the nail. Once the baseline performance is determined, subsequent studies can be designed to simulate the pH changes associated with fungal nail infections, allowing for a more comprehensive assessment of the formulation's efficacy in disease-relevant conditions.

Let's keep discussing this interesting topic and exploring at your convenience.

Dr Supriya Singh thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Dear friend J. Ramirez-Franco

Finding a specific commercially available tdTomato-nanobooster for clearing experiments can be challenging, as the availability of conjugated antibodies or nanobodies can vary. However, there are alternative strategies you can consider for enhancing tdTomato signal in 3D microscopy. Here are a few options:

1. Amplification techniques: Instead of using a tdTomato-specific nanobooster, you can employ amplification methods to enhance the fluorescence signal. One commonly used technique is the tyramide signal amplification (TSA) system, which utilizes horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and fluorophore-conjugated tyramide. This approach can increase the fluorescence signal and enable better detection of tdTomato.

2. Direct labeling: If a tdTomato-specific nanobooster is not readily available, you can directly label the tdTomato protein using fluorescent dyes or nanoparticles. This can be achieved by employing chemical conjugation methods or genetic engineering techniques to introduce fluorescent tags directly onto the tdTomato protein.

3. Genetic alternatives: Instead of using tdTomato, you can consider using other red fluorescent proteins (RFPs) that are commercially available with specific nanoboosters. For example, mCherry is another red fluorescent protein widely used in imaging studies, and there are conjugated antibodies or nanobodies available for amplifying mCherry signal.

It is important to note that the choice of the appropriate strategy will depend on the specific requirements of your experiment and the compatibility with your clearing technique. Additionally, it is advisable to consult the latest research articles, protocols, or supplier catalogs for up-to-date information on the availability of tdTomato-specific nanoboosters or alternative methods for enhancing tdTomato signal in 3D microscopy.

Thanks for your answer Vivek Chandel.

Few years ago I finished project according to metal atomizing. Ask if 3d-lab will prepare spheres for You https://metalatomizer.com/en

Wesam Ahmed Tawfik

Check out the article. There are answers to all your questions.

Thank you very much for your answer, I am using chitosan in its crude form and hope to modify it using some polymer to reduce the antimicrobial property

Dear friend Arafat Mahamud B.

According to a study (A comprehensive analysis and comparison between vacuum and electric ....), the best temperature to keep the active component is about 50–90 °C. The study also suggests that the optimal drying temperature was 100 °C for 20 min for two evaluated methods, however considering the machine cost, the electric oven drying would be the first choice.

I couldn't find any information on whether you need to adjust pH before drying. However, I found a research paper (Drying cellulose nanofibrils: in search of a suitable method........) that used freeze-drying to dry carboxymethyl cellulose nanofibers without adjusting pH before drying.

Another study (Effect of Drying Methods on Structure and Mechanical Properties of ....) applied different drying methods to suspensions just after mixing. Oven drying (OD) was performed at 105 °C for 24 h in glass beakers. Prior to freeze drying (FD), CNF suspensions (about 20 mL) were frozen in vials at a temperature of −80 °C for 24 h. According to this research paper on the drying of cellulose nanofibrils, the most suitable drying methods are freeze-drying and oven-drying. However, the paper does not mention whether pH adjustment is necessary before drying. I suggest you read this paper for more information on the drying process of cellulose nanofibrils. I hope this helps!

Source:

(1) A comprehensive analysis and comparison between vacuum and electric .... https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6431308/.

(2) Drying cellulose nanofibrils: in search of a suitable method. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10570-011-9630-z.

(3) Effect of Drying Methods on Structure and Mechanical Properties of .... https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272627985_Effect_of_Drying_Methods_on_Structure_and_Mechanical_Properties_of_Bacterial_Cellulose_Films.

(4) Drying and redispersion of plant cellulose nanofibers for industrial .... https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10570-020-03348-7.

(5) Home - PMC - NCBI - National Center for Biotechnology Information. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/.

(6) A feasible approach efficiently redisperse dried cellulose nanofibrils .... https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10570-020-03591-y.

Md. Shoebul Islam While powders are convenient for transport and storage there are no discrete, independent, separate particles < 100 nm in a powder. This is due to solid-solid diffusion at the nano scale. To retain the nano nature )100% < 100 nm) of the particles then they must be preserved in colloidal dispersion. Try measuring the specific surface area of the powder by BET. It should be greater than 60 m²/cm³ for the particles to be considered less than 100 nm. or further information view this webinar (free registration required):

Dispersion and nanotechnology

https://www.brainshark.com/malvern/vu?pi=zHSznNgprz5chz0

Also see plenty of discussions on Research Gate on this topic.

2 quotes from those much greater than I:

'I think dry nanotechnology is probably a dead-end' Rudy Rucker Transhumanity Magazine (August 2002)

‘If the particles are agglomerated and sub-micron it may be impossible to adequately disperse the particle… ‘The energy barrier to redispersion is greater if the particles have been dried. Therefore, the primary particles must remain dispersed in water...’ J H Adair, E. Suvaci, J Sindel, “Surface and Colloid Chemistry” Encyclopedia of materials: Science and Technology pp 8996 - 9006 Elsevier Science Ltd. 2001 ISBN 0-08-0431526

See also a recent question:

Respected sir,

may i request you to read the papers to get an idea

1. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314255174_The_Study_of_Relationship_between_Fracture_Angles_of_Natural_Fiber_with_Its_Micro_Fibril_Angle

2. https://research.ijcaonline.org/facet/number1/facet1314.pdf

@ Wilber, I think ACS Nano has no article publishing charge.

Refer Supporting information of paper

Dear friend Dimple Bishnoi

Yes, micro-strain and dislocation density can be calculated from XRD data files of natural fiber urea formaldehyde composites as well as inorganic, nano and metallic materials. The microstrain is defined as the root mean square of variations in the lattice parameters across the sample. The dislocation density is defined as the number of dislocations per unit volume (What is the best method to determine.....).

I couldn't find a research paper that matches your findings of δ=3.708807 and ε=4.384302. However, I found a research paper that discusses the calculation of microstrain and dislocation density from XRD data files (What is the best method to determine.........). You may find it helpful.

I hope this helps!

Source:

(1) What is the best method to determine crystallite size, microstrain and .... https://www.researchgate.net/post/What-is-the-best-method-to-determine-crystallite-size-microstrain-and-dislocation-density-from-XRD-data.

(2) Microstrain and dislocation density of perovskite films fabricated .... https://www.researchgate.net/figure/A-Microstrain-and-dislocation-density-of-perovskite-films-fabricated-on-top-of-ZnO_fig11_321311617.

(3) Approximation of crystallite size and microstrain via XRD line .... https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0042207X11003745.

(4) strain and dislocation density from XRD data - 14 - YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aWJ_m4Y0ZtE.

(5) X‐Ray Diffraction Microstrain Analysis for Extraction of Threading .... https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pssb.201900579.

Dear friend Gita Parviz

The decrease in density of your pure nanofibers after drug loading could be due to the fact that the drug molecules are occupying some of the space between the fibers. This could lead to an increase in the distance between the fibers and hence a decrease in density. Another possible explanation is that the drug molecules could be interacting with the fibers themselves, leading to a change in their structure and hence a change in their density (Polymeric Nanofibers....).

I hope this helps! Let me know if you have any other questions.

Source:

(1) Polymeric Nanofibers for Drug Delivery Applications: A ... - Springer. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10856-022-06700-4.

(2) Nanofibers: New Insights for Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28017155/.

(3) Drug loading and delivery using nanofibers scaffolds - PubMed. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27188394/.

I think that you mean disperse..for antibacterial tests the powders should be dispersed, so I think that water is the best disperdant. You should use ultrasonic probe to produce an homogeneous dispersion

Dear friend Zaid Abdulhussein

The particle size and zeta potential of chitosan nanoparticles can vary depending on the method of synthesis, pH, concentration, and other factors. However, here are some general ranges for particle size and zeta potential:

- Particle size: The average particle size of chitosan nanoparticles typically ranges from 10 to 500 nm, with some studies reporting sizes up to 1000 nm. However, the ideal particle size range for various applications may differ. For example, smaller particles may be more suitable for drug delivery applications, while larger particles may be better for wound healing applications.

- Zeta potential: The zeta potential of chitosan nanoparticles is often reported as positive, due to the amine groups on the chitosan molecule. The typical range for zeta potential is between +20 and +50 mV but can vary depending on the pH and concentration of the particles.

Here are a few references for further reading:

- Qi, L., Xu, Z., & Jiang, X. (2004). Preparation and antibacterial activity of chitosan nanoparticles. Carbohydrate research, 339(16), 2693-2700.

- Thanou, M., Verhoef, J. C., & Junginger, H. E. (2001). Chitosan and its derivatives as intestinal absorption enhancers. Advanced drug delivery reviews, 50(Supplement 1), S91-S101.

- Tiyaboonchai, W., Tungpradit, W., & Plianbangchang, P. (2007). Formulation and characterization of curcuminoids loaded solid lipid nanoparticles. International journal of pharmaceutics, 337(1-2), 299-306.

Dear friend Shaik Azad Basha

The XRD patterns of zinc oxide (ZnO) powders can vary depending on their particle size and morphology. As the particle size decreases, the diffraction peaks become broader and shift to lower angles due to the increased surface area-to-volume ratio, strain, and defects. In addition, the peak intensities may also change due to the differences in particle size, surface area, and crystalline quality.

Generally, the XRD pattern of bulk ZnO powder exhibits well-defined and sharp peaks corresponding to its hexagonal wurtzite structure (JCPDS card no. 36-1451). The diffraction peaks of ZnO nano-powders are broadened and shifted towards lower angles due to the reduced crystallite size and increased lattice strain. The XRD pattern of ZnO powders with a medium particle size falls in between that of bulk and nano-powders.

Here are some references that discuss the effect of particle size on the XRD patterns of ZnO:

1. J. H. Lee, J. H. Kim, S. J. An, J. H. Jeong, J. W. Jeong, and H. J. Kim, "Size effect on the structural and optical properties of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized at low temperature," Bull. Korean Chem. Soc., vol. 33, pp. 3507-3512, 2012.

2. M. Zahedifar, R. Azimirad, and M. H. Sheikhi, "Effect of synthesis temperature on structural and optical properties of ZnO nanoparticles," J. Alloys Compd., vol. 509, pp. 3072-3076, 2011.

3. A. M. Alshehri, M. J. Khan, and A. A. Ismail, "Effect of particle size on the structural and optical properties of ZnO nanoparticles prepared by sol-gel method," Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., vol. 7, pp. 12404-12413, 2012.

4. S. V. Prabhakar, S. Venugopal Reddy, and K. H. Reddy, "Effect of particle size on the structural and optical properties of ZnO nanoparticles synthesized by co-precipitation method," J. Mater. Sci.: Mater. Electron., vol. 25, pp. 2319-2326, 2014.

Dear Tarek abdel-halim ,

to my opinion, here you have a nice example of a preferred orientation artifact.

In contast the XRD, which will give you a diffraction pattern averaged over the full sample surface and thus collecting the data from a very lot of crystallites, here in the SAED mode, you have only a few crystallites in the field of view. These few crystallites cannot cover the whole 4pi directional space 'dense' enough to give you all the diffraction peaks. Thus the 101 one may missing here. You should average your SEAD pattern over a lot of sample points.

However, even when doing that average, your may still miss that peak, due to an overall preferred orientation of the crystallites in your very thin sample...

Best regards

G.M.

The equation is about the equivalence of energy and mass. It is a statical comparison between the energy of “free quanta” and the energy of the mass (a local concentration of energy). In other words, time is not part of the equation E = m c².

A single quantum of energy has the constant speed of light (c) if the trajectory of the quantum is linear (like an electromagnetic wave). The quantum represents change and during 1 second the linear change of position of a quantum of energy in vacuum space is about 300.000.000 m.

To create a local mass there must be an amount of “free energy” available in vacuum space to create the mass. But at the moment the mass is created its properties are not identical to the properties of the previous “free energy”. For example if the energy of the mass is 10²⁴ h (Planck’s constant) we don’t observe 10²⁴ quanta co-moving with the speed of light in vacuum space.

In other words, every concentrated fixed amount of energy must be transformed into a multiple of the quantum in vacuum space to create “free energy”. The conversion of a “locked quantum” into a “free quantum” needs the multiplication of the mass with c².

The latter is difficult to understand because what does the equation actually mean? Is it the transformation of vacuum space around the mass like it was before the concentration of energy (m)? Or is it just the hypothetical situation that we pick one by one a quantum of energy from the mass and apply c² to each quantum?

The first proposition is easierto understand than the second one. Because at the end of the local concentration of energy the average amplitudes of the electromagnetic field in vacuum space has decreased, because this amount of free energy was transformed into the mass (m).

Decreasing the amplitudes of the electromagnetic field means decreasing the surface area of the amplitudes. Actually, we cannot state that an amplitude is equivalent to an amount of volume (geometrics) because applying energy to a particle doesn’t blow up its size, it is changing its velocity. In other words, energy represents surface area and it is a variable property of the structure of the electromagnetic field.

Thus c² is not 300.000.000 m² because the equivalence between mass and energy is expressed with the help of a statical equation. Moreover, the speed of light (c) is an attribute of the quantum of free energy (h). Actually it is a duality that cannot be seperated.

With kind regards, Sydney

Dear friend Asma Molavi

To refine your work and achieve the correct amount of calculated optical force on particle exclusively in order pico or femto newton, you can try the following:

1. Increase the resolution of your simulation by decreasing the mesh size and increasing the number of mesh cells.

2. Increase the simulation time to ensure that you have captured all of the relevant physics.

3. Use a more accurate material model for your nanoparticle.

4. Use a more accurate model for your laser source.

5. Use a more accurate model for your boundary conditions.

You can also calculate optical force on a particle using Lumerical FDTD by integrating the Maxwell Stress Tensor over a closed boxed that surrounds the particle (Photocatalysis – Ansys Optics.....). You can visualize the F_total result to generate a plot of the total force in Newtons on the particle (Ring Resonator Simulated in Lumerical.......).

I hope this helps!

Source:

Optical force on a particle (2D) – Ansys Optics. https://optics.ansys.com/hc/en-us/articles/360042214494-Optical-force-on-a-particle-2D-.

Optical force on a particle (3D) – Ansys Optics. https://optics.ansys.com/hc/en-us/articles/360042214434-Optical-force-on-a-particle-3D-.

Ring resonator getting started - Design and initial simulation. https://optics.ansys.com/hc/en-us/articles/360042800293-Ring-resonator-getting-started-Design-and-initial-simulation.

How to set input power of Sources in Lumerical FDTD?. https://www.researchgate.net/post/How_to_set_input_power_of_Sources_in_Lumerical_FDTD.

III-V Semiconductor Optical Material Data Tool – Ansys Optics. https://optics.ansys.com/hc/en-us/articles/4411081333011-III-V-Semiconductor-Optical-Material-Data-Tool.

Ring Resonator Simulated in Lumerical MODE Solutions' Propagator. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_OlW0hP9rX8.

Accurate Time Domain Laser Modeling in Photonic Integrated ... - Lumerical. https://www.lumerical.com/learn/whitepapers/accurate-time-domain-laser-modeling-in-photonic-integrated-circuits/.

Optical pressure and numerical simulation of optical forces. https://opg.optica.org/abstract.cfm?URI=ao-56-12-3354.

Photocatalysis – Ansys Optics. https://optics.ansys.com/hc/en-us/articles/360042274854-Photocatalysis.

Trapping and manipulation of nanoparticles using multifocal optical .... https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-14449-y/.

Ansys Lumerical FDTD | Simulation for Photonic Components. https://www.ansys.com/products/photonics/fdtd.

Dear Kaushik Shandilya ,

Thank you so much for this valuable information about the latest developments in nanotechnology solar cells. You have clearly explained the most important recent techniques that have improved the efficiency and performance of solar cells, as well as the latest achievements in this regard.

Such up-to-date and accurate information about advances in science and technology is very useful to me in my work. May God reward you for sharing this valuable content. I wish you success in making more distinguished contributions.

Best regards, [Marwan Hani]

Dear friend Ali Choopanian Benis

I'm sorry but I couldn't find any information on how to simulate passing a CO2 molecule from a nano pore graphene using GaussView6 with a scan between +4A° and -4.

Could you please provide more details on what you are trying to achieve? What is your end goal?

I found some useful references for you.

Source:

(1) High-efficiency CO2 separation using hybrid LDH-polymer ... - Nature. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-23121-z.

(2) Graphene oxide membranes with stable porous structure for ultrafast .... https://www.nature.com/articles/s41565-020-00833-9.

(3) How much CO2 and H2S could be removed using a 3A molecular sieve .... https://www.researchgate.net/post/How-much-CO2-and-H2S-could-be-removed-using-a-3A-molecular-sieve-adsorbent.

(4) Effective removal of methane using nano-sized zeolite 4A synthesized .... https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S138770031931010X.

(5) Efficient electrocatalytic valorization of chlorinated organic water .... https://www.nature.com/articles/s41565-022-01277-z.

(6) Synthesis and characterization of reduced-graphene oxide/TiO2. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264127515301854.

(7) Lung-RADS Category 3 and 4 Nodules on Lung Cancer Screening in ... - PubMed. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35080453/.

(8) GMD - Computation of longwave radiative flux and vertical heating rate .... https://gmd.copernicus.org/articles/15/5211/2022/.

(9) Synthesis of Highly Twisted and Fully π Conjugated Porphyrinic Oligomers. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/ja511905f.

Dear friend Amir Mostashari

I found a paper that might be helpful for you. The paper discusses the commercial and synthesised few-layer graphene oxide, prepared using oxidation reactions, and few-layer reduced graphene oxide samples that were structurally and chemically investigated by the X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and electron spectroscopy methods, i.e. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and...(Graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide...).

I couldn't find any standard XRD analysis data of Graphene Oxide in tabular form. However, I found a paper that compares the structural parameters of FL-GOc and FL-RGOc resulting from the XRD patterns (Graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide....).

Source:

(1) Graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide studied by the XRD, TEM and .... https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0368204814001510.

(2) XRD patterns of graphite, graphene oxide and graphene.. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/XRD-patterns-of-graphite-graphene-oxide-and-graphene_fig1_263509024.

(3) Graphene oxide membranes with stable porous structure for ultrafast .... https://www.nature.com/articles/s41565-020-00833-9.

(4) Synthesis, characterization, and application of graphene oxide and .... https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352710223007659.

Hello

Please tell me the field of work and the cases of use, i.e. what do you want to use it for?

Concerning single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), one of the main problem is the separation of chiralities of individual tubes after growth by chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The CVD of SWCNTs is the best method to obtain clean tubes with few defects and high quality (which is verified by Raman spectroscopy), but a lot of different kinds of tubes (chiralities of (n,m)-SWCNTs) are usually obtained. Some of the tubes can be metallic and other semiconducting depending on the (n,m) chirality (ex: (6,5)-SWCNT is chiral and semiconducting). Depending on the application, specific type is required: for example, only semiconducting SWCNTs are desired if used as field electric transistors (to replace Si-based transistor technologies), or more metallic tubes if used as conductive electrode.

In this regard, a lot of effort are being made to separate the tubes with various methods: CVD with specific nanoparticles used as catalyst with precise size or geometry (by great control of pressure, temperature and gases such as reducing H2 or carbon source, thus chemical, cinematic and thermodynamic aspects play interconnected and complex roles during CVD), the other approach is to separate the SWNTs with polymers or by centrifugation or similar mechanical approaches. But while in the first case reproducible and reliable CVD process leading to 100% of single chirality of tube was never achieved yet, in the other case the separation (chemical or mechanical) often leads to problem such as difficulty to purify or to keep the tubes without damages (broken C-C bonds, etc.).

If you're interested in mechanically strong nanotubes, multi-walled nanotubes have better properties than single-walled carbon nanotubes (which has better opto-electronic properties).

Hope this helps.

explain your idea

Dear Rakibul Hasan

To determine fluorescent signal using TECAN Infinite M Nano Plus microplate reader, you can follow the general protocol outlined below:

Note that the exact protocol and settings may vary depending on the specific fluorescent dye and experimental conditions used. It is important to consult the instrument manual and the dye's technical data sheet for detailed instructions.

Generating less pollution during the manufacture of materials for the production of solar cells to generate electricity at a competitive cost. To increase electricity generated by windmills for cleaning organic chemicals that pollute the groundwater. Thus, nanotechnology provides a solution to clean the contaminated water and prevent new pollution. With the help of nanotechnology, toxic gases in the air can be cleaned. But first, we have to detect the pollutants at the molecular level using precise sensors. Nanotechnology is crucial in achieving food security, especially in the agriculture sector. It can improve crop production by effective microbial, pest, and weed control with high economic value, security, and safety. Nanotechnology is used in a variety of agricultural applications, including: Delivery of nano pesticides. Nanoparticles containing biofertilizers are released gradually and in a regulated manner. Application of nano biosensors for quick detection of phytopathogens and other biotic and abiotic stressors in crop growth. Nanofertilizers enhance plant growth by direct as well as by foliar application methods. In order to prevent eutrophication, and to improve nutrient use efficiency in agriculture, nanofertilizers may be the best option. Further, optimum level of nano-fertilizer application could increase the nutrients use efficiency by reduced the toxic effects of NPs on plants to overcome the oxidative damage and regulation the antioxidative defense mechanism. A very high concentration of nanoparticles may severely affect the photosynthesis which may result in plant growth suppression or plant death. Several reports have observed significant decrease in plant growth as the result of nanoparticle exposure.

Dear friend Ahmed Kadhim Hussein and Nisitha Selvan

Nano fillers have a wide range of practical applications due to their unique properties, such as high surface area, high aspect ratio, and high mechanical strength. Some of the most practical applications of nano fillers are:

Overall, the practical applications of nano fillers are vast and diverse, and their unique properties make them a valuable material for a wide range of industries and applications.

Dear Sergey Kovalchuk

The error message "Illegal left WP home position. Please execute self test." suggests that there is an issue with the left waste pump (WP) not being in the correct position. This error can occur due to various reasons such as mechanical issues or sensor malfunction.

To solve this issue, you can try the following steps:

It is essential to take caution while handling the equipment to avoid causing any further damage.

BaTiO3 Thin Film Spin-Coating

Raghd Muhi Al-Deen

How to form a thin film of commercially available BaTiO3? please suggest any binder for it like polymer and alcohol

There are several methods for forming a thin film of BaTiO3, including physical vapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition, sol-gel deposition, and spin coating.

Spin coating is a popular and relatively simple technique that involves applying a thin layer of liquid precursor solution onto a substrate and then spinning the substrate to spread the solution evenly across the surface. The solvent is then evaporated, leaving behind a thin film of the desired material.

To form a thin film of BaTiO3 using spin coating, you can follow these general steps:

Prepare a solution of BaTiO3 precursor in a solvent. The precursor solution can be obtained commercially or synthesized using methods such as sol-gel synthesis.

Add a binder to the solution to improve the adhesion of the film to the substrate. Suitable binders for BaTiO3 thin films include polymers such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) or polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), as well as alcohols such as ethanol or isopropanol.

Apply the precursor solution onto a substrate, such as a glass or silicon wafer. The amount of solution applied will depend on the desired thickness of the film.

Spin the substrate at a controlled speed for a certain amount of time to distribute the solution evenly across the surface and remove any excess solution. The speed and time of spinning will depend on the viscosity of the precursor solution and the desired thickness of the film.

Dry the substrate at a suitable temperature to evaporate the solvent and solidify the precursor into a thin film of BaTiO3.

Note that the specific details of each step will depend on the specific precursor and binder used, as well as the equipment and conditions available. It may be helpful to consult literature or seek guidance from experts in the field for more detailed instructions.

Ms Rawat

Nanoparticles are modified by physical adsorption with curcumin. In this process, the formation of chemical bonds of curcumin with silver nanoparticles does not occur. During conjugation, chemical bonds are formed between the surface atoms of the nanoparticles and curcumin. To do this, the mixture is boiled in an alkaline solution.

In the nano-scale range, superconductivity may be enhanced due to the increased surface-to-volume ratio and increased quantum confinement effects. As the particle size decreases, the electron delocalization increases, leading to higher critical temperatures for superconductivity. This means that at nano-scale sizes, the material can reach higher temperatures before becoming superconducting. This could lead to new materials with higher performance.

The Cooper length is the length scale at which electrons pair up to form Cooper pairs, which is a key step in the process of superconductivity. In a nanomaterial, the Cooper length is typically smaller than in a bulk material, due to the increased surface-to-volume ratio. This means that the electrons are able to pair up more easily, resulting in higher critical temperatures for superconductivity.

Encapsulation efficiency is calculated with drug used at start and drug in supernatant after loading. The difference of which gives drug loading. Loading capacity is equivalent to ratio of drug loaded to total dry weight of nanoparticles.

Drug release can be monitored via dialysis

Ruling out filtration by 0.22 um since you say that the nanoparticles clog the filter, if your nanoparticles can withstand an autoclaving cycle (120 ºC) this would be the most economical option. Another option is gamma radiation. If your nanoparticles are affected by temperature and radiation (as is common), you should produce them in aseptic conditions to maintain their sterility. Here you can see a paper in which the effect of nanoparticles on cells in culture was studied, where you can see the established protocol:

Nanofertilizers have higher transport and delivery of nutrients through plasmodesmata, which are nanosized (50–60 nm) channels between cells. The higher NUE and significantly lesser nutrient losses of nanofertilizers lead to higher productivity (6–17%) and nutritional quality of field crops. The relationship is almost logarithmic. The first 40 kg/acre of nitrogen application doubles crop yields, from 60 bushels per acre to around 130 kg/bushel. The next 20 kg/acre adds another 5% to crop yields. The next 20kg/acre adds 4%. Nano fertilizer have large surface area and particle size less than the pore size of root and leaves of the plant which can increase penetration into the plant from applied surface and improve uptake and nutrient use efficiency of the nano-fertilizer. The application of nano-fertilizers (NFs) is an emerging research field in agriculture. These are materials in the size range of 1–100 nm that support the nutrition of the plants. Nanotechnology helps to improve agricultural production by increasing the efficiency of inputs and minimizing relevant losses. Nanomaterials offer a wider specific surface area to fertilizers and pesticides. Nanotechnology for the management of crops is used as an essential technology for enhancing crop productivity. Nanomaterials and nanostructures, such as carbon nanotubes, nanofibers, and quantum dots are now exploited in agriculture research as biosensors for evaluating the quality of soil and fertilizer distribution. Nanotechnology has shown its potential to produce growth in the agricultural sector via the utilization of nano pesticides, nano fertilizers and products such as nano sensors. Nano fertilizers promote the slow and steady liberation of nutrients by enhancing the productivity of the soil.

Nanofertilizers offer benefits in nutrition management through their strong potential to increase nutrient use efficiency. Nutrients either applied alone or in combination, are bound to nano-dimensional adsorbents, which release nutrients very slowly as compared to conventional fertilizers. Nanofertilizers (NFs) are the best alternative to traditional chemical fertilizers. Nutrients use efficiency of NFs is higher than the conventional chemical fertilizers. NFs can increase the tolerance of plants against biotic and abiotic stresses. Nanotechnology can support agriculture and alleviate environmental challenges by producing nano pesticides and managing plant diseases. This can be achieved by using eco-friendly nanoparticles to improve the effectiveness of chemicals at lower dosages. Nano-fertilizers are of submicroscopic sizes, have a large surface area to volume ratio, can have nutrient encapsulation, and greater mobility hence they may increase plant nutrient access and crop yield. Due to these properties, nano-fertilizers are regarded as deliverable smart system of nutrients. Nano fertilizers are essential resources in agriculture in order to increase crop production, quality, productivity, and boost nutrient uptake. Nano-fertilizer is efficient for specific use of nutrients at appropriate time of plant growth and can provide nutrients as a whole with the crop. Nano-fertilizers are more reactive, can penetrate the epidermis allowing for gradual release, and targeted distribution, and thus reducing nutrients surplus, enhancing nutrient use efficiency. We also, concluded that NPs are crucial in alleviating abiotic stress and heavy metal toxicity.

Nano-fertilizers are of submicroscopic sizes, have a large surface area to volume ratio, can have nutrient encapsulation, and greater mobility hence they may increase plant nutrient access and crop yield. Due to these properties, nano-fertilizers are regarded as deliverable 'smart system of nutrients'.The advent of nanotechnology has reduced the use of hazardous chemical fertilizers and in turn has also led to an increased uptake of minerals by plant, leading to better crop growth and yield. Nano-fertilizers also reduce the crop cycle period and increase crop yield as the amendment of nanoparticles carrying NPK to wheat showed an increase in grain yield and reduced the crop cycle of wheat by 40 days. Nanofertilizers (NFs) are the best alternative to traditional chemical fertilizers. Nutrients use efficiency of NFs is higher than the conventional chemical fertilizers. NFs can increase the tolerance of plants against biotic and abiotic stresses. An application of nanofertilizers increases efficiency of the elements, minimizes their toxicity in the soil, and reduces the frequency of application. The nanofertilizer application leads to a gradual and controlled release of nutrients in the soil, and prevents eutrophication and pollution of water resources. Nanopesticides are used for treating pest-related diseases and to control weeds. In the food industry, the important application of nanopesticide includes food processing, packaging, and preservation. Nanopesticides can protect plants against phytopathogens, while nanofertilizers stimulate plant growth and ensure large-scale food production all over the world. In this chapter, popular nanofertilizers and nanopesticides and their applications on plants in practice were comprehensively introduced.