Mountaineering - Science topic

The concept of a "nation" is largely a human-imposed idea rather than a natural geographical construct. While geography often influences how nations are formed, the idea of a nation goes beyond physical boundaries and incorporates cultural, political, and ideological dimensions. Here's a breakdown:

Human-Imposed Aspects:

Natural Geographical Influences:

Difficult to identify.

Abderrahmane Noui Mountains do not function as large internal water reservoirs like lakes or glaciers. Instead, they store water in fractures, aquifers, and permeable(voids) rock layers. These underground systems allow for slow water release, supporting springs and rivers. However, the water storage is generally dispersed and dependent on the mountain's rock characteristics.

Eugene: Good point. I like the ambiguity of the word "journey," because a literal journey has a temporal and spatial relationship with a metaphorical journey or the journel as related to archetypes.

Respected Mahendra S. Lodhi

Addressing the challenges associated with sustainable agriculture and water resource conservation in mountainous regions involves a multi-faceted approach that integrates environmental, social, and technological strategies. Here are some key strategies:

1. Implementing Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM)

- Watershed Management: Prioritize the management of watersheds to ensure that water is conserved and managed efficiently. This involves protecting upstream forests, regulating water flow, and preventing soil erosion.

- Water Harvesting Techniques: Utilize traditional and modern water harvesting techniques such as rainwater harvesting, building check dams, and contour trenches to capture and store water.

- Efficient Irrigation Systems: Promote the use of efficient irrigation systems like drip and sprinkler irrigation that reduce water wastage.

2. Promoting Sustainable Agricultural Practices

- Agroforestry: Integrate trees and shrubs into agricultural systems to enhance biodiversity, improve soil quality, and increase water retention.

- Crop Diversification: Encourage the cultivation of a variety of crops, especially those that are drought-resistant and adapted to local conditions. This reduces dependency on a single crop and improves food security.

- Soil Conservation Techniques: Implement soil conservation methods such as terracing, contour plowing, and the use of cover crops to prevent soil erosion and maintain soil fertility.

3. Community Involvement and Education

- Capacity Building: Provide training and education to local farmers on sustainable agricultural practices and water conservation techniques. Empower communities to take part in the planning and management of local resources.

- Collaborative Management: Encourage participatory approaches where local communities, governments, and NGOs work together to manage resources sustainably.

4. Adopting Climate-Resilient Practices

- Climate-Smart Agriculture: Implement practices that are resilient to climate change, such as using climate-resistant crop varieties, adjusting planting dates, and adopting conservation agriculture.

- Monitoring and Forecasting: Use weather forecasting and climate models to inform farmers about upcoming weather conditions, enabling them to make informed decisions regarding planting and irrigation.

5. Policy and Institutional Support

- Supportive Policies: Advocate for policies that support sustainable agriculture and water conservation, including subsidies for sustainable practices, research funding, and infrastructure development.

- Institutional Frameworks: Strengthen institutions that support sustainable agricultural practices and water management, ensuring they have the resources and authority to implement and enforce policies effectively.

6. Technological Innovation

- Remote Sensing and GIS: Utilize remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to monitor water resources, land use changes, and the impacts of agricultural practices on the environment.

- Low-Cost Technologies: Develop and disseminate affordable technologies for small-scale farmers, such as low-cost sensors for soil moisture and portable water filtration systems.

7. Enhancing Biodiversity

- Conservation of Native Species: Protect and promote the use of native plant species that are well-adapted to local conditions and require less water.

- Wildlife Corridors: Establish wildlife corridors to maintain biodiversity and ecosystem health, which in turn supports sustainable agriculture.

8. Economic Incentives

- Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES): Implement PES schemes where farmers and landowners are financially rewarded for adopting practices that conserve water and enhance the environment.

- Market Access: Improve access to markets for sustainably produced agricultural products, ensuring farmers receive fair prices and can sustain their livelihoods.

By combining these strategies, mountainous regions can effectively address the challenges of sustainable agriculture and water resource conservation, leading to more resilient and productive ecosystems and communities.

yes, you can. I think there will be no problem.

Certainly! Conducting a probabilistic analysis in PLAXIS 3D can be a valuable approach for assessing the stability of mountain slopes. Here are some general steps and considerations for performing such an analysis:

Define Probability Distributions: Identify the parameters that may influence the stability of your slope, such as material properties (e.g., soil cohesion, friction angle), geometry (e.g., slope angle, height), and external factors (e.g., rainfall intensity). Assign probability distributions to these parameters based on available data, literature, or expert judgment. Common distributions include normal, lognormal, and uniform distributions.

Generate Random Samples: Use statistical techniques (e.g., Monte Carlo simulation) to generate random samples from the defined probability distributions for each parameter. This step involves creating multiple realizations of your slope model, each with different sets of input parameters sampled from their respective distributions.

Perform PLAXIS Simulations: Set up and run PLAXIS 3D simulations for each generated realization of the slope model. Ensure that the model accurately represents the terrain, material properties, boundary conditions, and loading conditions. Conduct stability analyses (e.g., slope stability, factor of safety calculations) for each simulation.

Analyze Results: Collect and analyze the results from all simulations. This may involve comparing factors of safety, failure mechanisms, or critical failure surfaces across different realizations. Identify trends or patterns in the data to assess the overall probability of slope failure and associated uncertainties.

Sensitivity Analysis: Perform sensitivity analyses to understand the influence of individual parameters on slope stability and failure probability. This helps identify which parameters have the most significant impact and where additional data or refinement may be needed.

Interpretation and Reporting: Interpret the probabilistic analysis results and communicate findings effectively. Provide insights into the likelihood and consequences of slope failure under different scenarios, along with recommendations for risk management and mitigation strategies.

As for specific manuals or discussions on probabilistic analysis in PLAXIS 3D, you may want to refer to the PLAXIS documentation, online forums, or academic literature for guidance. Additionally, reaching out to experienced users or consulting with geotechnical engineering professionals familiar with probabilistic modeling could provide valuable insights and practical advice.

you can see useful information in our paper about a probabilistic analysis with link below:

Extracting information about mountain glaciers without extensive fieldwork can be achieved through remote sensing techniques and the utilization of satellite imagery. Here are some recent methodologies and datasets that can be helpful:

By combining these methodologies and leveraging available datasets, researchers can efficiently extract information about mountain glaciers without the need for extensive fieldwork, enabling comprehensive glacier monitoring and analysis on a global scale.

Hi Salma Abdelmaboud

Use a single drop of mounting medium. Coat the outside of the coverslips with white nail paint and keep it in room temp for 5 mins. That should be sufficient to dry the slides. I store the slides in 4 degree refrigerator.

* You may be facing the issue due to over pouring of mounting medium.

Thanks

Samir

Climate Change & Agriculture in the Arid Region, an example of Tunisian Olive Groves adaptation to bioclimatic conditions: The olive tree has been cultivated in Tunisia since Roman times under different bioclimatic conditions in exclusively rainfed groves: in the south with less than 250 mm of rainfall and in the north with more than 600 mm [1]. Apart from the different olive tree species in each of the regions, it is clear that the density of olive trees is strictly correlated with rainfall, ranging from 16 olive trees per hectare in the South to nearly a hundred olive trees per hectare in the North; so that it is possible to faithfully superimpose the density map of olive trees on the map of isohyets. Empirically, over millennia and outside of any protocol or procedure, the peasants have naturally adapted to the natural conditions of the environment, and it is difficult to imagine that things can be otherwise.

[1]

احتمال اثار أشجار cast fossils plant

R M C S Ratnayake

Hedyotis or Hediyotis??

It is Hedyotis quinquinervia Thwaites of Rubiaceae family.

Thanks!

If you have the aquifer data and the water table data, then you need to find only the elevation data with respect to MSL, to construct water table map. As the springs are the meeting point of water table with the ground surface, you can certainly use the origin point of spring as the water table elevation.

Could be soil mounds from gophers, voles or moles or similar type of burrowing animal

The USGS typically used current meters. They would measure from a bridge for access and safety, using a cable reel to lower current meter with weight attached. Historically, they would install a cable across the stream and use a manned cable car to lower the current meter with weight. Doppler current meters are very expensive and have trouble in high velocity, turbulent waters. If you had a fluorometer, fluorescent dye could be added at an upstream distance, and monitor and time the fluorescence concentration as it passes downstream in a well mixed section. The oranges may be the least cost, and add them or throw them in at different places in the cross section, as some areas have faster velocity than others. If you have someone throw in 10 oranges upstream 100 meters or a couple meander bends or riffle run pool glide sequences, and use binoculars or can spot each orange at it passes, then you can get an idea of mean velocity. Velocity can vary spatially. Oranges float on or near the surface, which can be the fastest water, but in very turbulent water, some may pass unseen submerged. If the stream passes through a culvert, culverts have flow velocity rating curves that might be helpful. There are some other types of velocity sensors that can be purchased. Without quality equipment and technique in measuring multiple points across the cross section, it would be difficult to expect quality results. If you are trying to get discharge, you want the cross section area for that gauge height times the mean velocity of the cross section, which may average 20 or more readings across the cross section. The depth of the current meter is typically at 0.6 D for shallow waters, and in deeper waters depths of 0.2, 0.8, and perhaps 0.6 D to get an average velocity at that location. The Doppler meter if used, floats on a small boat, and is pulled across the channel to get detailed depth and velocity data. In my circumstance on the upper Chattooga River, it was much cheaper to hire the USGS to help gather the high flow data at our gauging site using their Doppler meter, so we had a quality stage discharge relationship (including velocity if desired). I think we paid $350 per new flood stage reading. The Doppler gauge costs about $25k, and our measurement site was about 2 hour drive from their office, to give you an idea. A rule of thumb—- the stream velocity in feet/sec times the water depth in feet should not exceed the value of 10, for safe wading, wear life jacket, tether rope, backup, dry clothes, etc. as needed. Highly turbulent water, standing waves, etc. best to avoid even considering.

The HEC-HMS model is a lump-based model, while the SWAT model is a semi-distributed model. Lump-based models consider the total basin as a “single homogeneous element".

Nikolaos Tziokas ， Thanks for your advance, i focus on mountain glaciers in mid-latitudes (50S-50N).

Borys Kapochkin The Mistral is a chilly, dry wind that sweeps over the Mediterranean area, notably in France, from the northwest to the southeast. It is a downslope wind, which means it blows from the mountains down to the sea.

Because it does not occur in the same way as a Föhn wind, the Mistral is not a warm mountain wind (Föhn). When moist, chilly air on the windward side of the mountains is lifted and chilled, causing the moisture to condense and create clouds, a Föhn wind sweeps down the leeward side of the mountains. Due to adiabatic heating, the air drops on the leeward side of the mountains and heats.

The Mistral, on the other hand, is created by the lifting and cooling of wet air across a mountain range. The pressure differential between a high-pressure system over the Atlantic Ocean and a low-pressure system over the Mediterranean Sea is what causes it. As the high-pressure system advances eastward, winds blow from the northwest to the southeast, bringing cold, dry air from the continent's core to the shore.

As a result, the Mistral is not a warm mountain wind (Föhn) since it is produced by different physical processes than a Föhn wind.

Dear Andres,

there is a research station up at the peak of Zugspitze. I'd suggest you contact the staff there. I am sure they can help you out in locating the relevant studies/data you're looking for. Otherwise, the study 300 m below combined with the airborne microorganism sample from directly above the peak (?) also seem to be quite relevant to me. What precisely is your research question/target?

Good luck & best wishes from northern Germany,

Julius

Sir, I am sharing our current article. Please give your valuable opinion.

Thank you all for the answers

Dear Sir,

To develop very high spatial resolution (1-2 km) meterological variables, you may need to downscale the available high/moderate resolution climate data for the region.

You may refer the attached paper for further insight.

Regards.

Your approach of analysis through self-organized criticality (SOC) offers a new perspective on the issue. Some elaboration of SOC framework in resolving issue at micro or in-situ scale vs macro or ex-situ scale would be immensely useful.

Dear Raj Sunil Kandregula

Thank you very much for this interesting question. This indeed is a research question that can only be answered after thorough research. While I was searching for some answers, I came across the attached publication. I hope it provides some insights.

Thanks and regards

Gowhar Meraj

you should visit github repository to download the dataset

Kindly check on this paper.

Dear you can do it easily with using DEM on ArcMap software, then generate the TIN

regards

That is a good question.

I with agree my dear Dr. Jinan Abdul Ameer Abbas

climatic changes effects on agriculture for example temperature , humidity and rains. it is worth effects on content of soil microorganisms.

also, the vegetables production from tomato and potato had effected significant .

otherwise, pant diseases in mountain farming regions was different by cause climatic changes.

Dear Mudasir Bhat

I studied the friction velocity in my thesis

interested

Interested

Hi,

I think this article may help you: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257346545_An_advanced_algorithm_for_deformation_estimation_in_non-urban_areas

Which is better from an economic point of view, to keep it or use it for the purposes of construction materials .. But the environmental aspect of the area remains very important and must be taken into consideration with thanks.

This is an answer to the question you asked Dr. Sherien

Summera Fahmi Khan you can interpolate four points surrounding the gauge point to extract the RCM data

then you can use KGE for comparison between both (RCM data and Observation data)

If you have GIS experience, I would recommend you to extract the information from shapefiles available in the SIAC Catálogo de mapas - IDEAM (http://www.siac.gov.co/catalogo-de-mapas). You can get information about soils, geomorphology, ecosystems, threats, etc.

Pant, i live in the mountains and have numerous springs on my property. The spring flows correlate to the local rainfall. Some spring sources have a larger groundwater storage area and will discharge flows over longer time periods so you must define the source aquifer, occurrence of faults that may drain the shallow aquifer into deeper aquifers. Your model is going to need to handle fracture flow. also in the mountains the wind currents flowing in and around the mountain peaks create localized eddy currents that drop hug quantities of rain in very short time period in a very localized area, so your rain gage density needs to be particularly tight for correlation to groundwater levels and spring discharge.

Dear Prof. Barbara Motyka,

I am interested in bees. So, I have a research paper and a discussion thread. Please have a look at them:

Hello Naseer,

If you are targeting specific species, then the information about its environmental tolerance limits is very crucial along with recorded distribution points for designing sampling strategy and ecological assessment. The species with increasing elevations tends to adapt to specific environmental conditions. You may consider for example topographic variables (elevation, aspect, slope, TWI ) derived from e.g. DEM for assessing potentially suitable environmental condition/combinations where you can found the species, then you can design your sampling strategy to cover all potential where you can distribute your sampling points proportionally in cost effective manner.

Best

IDR

Have a look at this related work :

Dear professors Abdur Razzak Choudhur, Abdul Aziz,

geo studio is the best way to model a slope

There are multiple factors responsible for the dynamics of diversity in mountainous regions e.g., Altitude, topography, temperature, precipitation, forest type, soil etc.

You can use, for example, measurements of spectral albedo from Perovich et al. (2002) for sea ice:

In order for cosmic rays to arrive at the surface of the earth, you have to get rid of the solar wind (which blocks cosmic rays) something not likely to happen.

Highland is an area of elevation as against low plains or lowland. They are not necessarily flood plains. Its surface (topsoil) or subsurface soil may have high infiltration tendency that is, low runoff coefficient which may reduce flood risk. It may as well consist impermeable (mountainous) surface with large runoff coefficient which will increase flood risk as well. Basically runoff coefficient factor is essential as it relates the amount of runoff to the amount of precipitation received. However, with topographical variation either with steep or gentle gradient the low plains will be susceptible to flooding if adequate storm water channels are not implemented.

Hence, conduct flood risk assessment as suggested by Bayan Hussien and then classify your study area. Source for contour map or generate a topo survey using GIS software.

Dear ILAN KELMAN,

Thank you for the information. Could you contribute with some info about

Mountain Landscape Disasters (e.g. on landscape level)?

Landscape is osaic of ecosystems. Ecosystem Health has been already studied. Do you have / know about Mountain Landscape Health (again, on landscape level)? Thank you in advance, Vlad

In opinion the ecotone is a natural belt which bridging and controls the overall environmental condition between foothills and plains, hence the foothills and the plains are become safer. example, Estern foothills of Sahyadri ranges of India,

Dear Dr. Al-Ajmi,

I admonish you to cause unnecessary confusion by re-naming a formation owing to the thickness variation relative to the type locality. It makes no sense at all. Even if there are lithological changes or indications of a lateral facies change, e.g., from a continental facies through a shelf facies to a deep-water facies a well-entrenched stratigraphic term should be maintained in my opinion. Stratigraphy is aimed at correlating contemporaneous strata which can be different in thickness and composition. If we flood the local stratigraphy with a huge amount of local terms we once upon time are only forced to carry out a huge clean-up operation. The paper production is increased, the scientific profit certainly not.

My question what is the net-result and benefit of your renaming? A new paper will not be greeted with love and appreciated.

Keep hands off this action, it makes no sense neither stratigraphically nor scientifically at all. I recommend rather to investigate why such thickness changes, in particular, and lateral facies changes, in general, take place in this series.

Trust an “old dog” in field geology

H.G.Dill

I think you might find this paper helpful.

For example, you can consider rebuilding the snow line. For reference only, I am not in this field.

Bonjour,

Je suppose que vous avez déjà dans vos dossiers l'étude de cas de Tayan Raj Gurung au Bhoutan parue dans la revue Ecology and Society en 2006. Mais j'attache son article ci-joint, ainsi qu'un autre plus "grand public" et sans doute moins accessible, à toute fin utile.

Bonne continuation,

Guy

It will depend on the local surrounding, local vegetation and which type of weather change will be brought to the local by climate change (warmer, colder, dryer, wetter). Most places are predicted to get warmer, with changes in precipitation patterns. With increased temperature we could see a higher tree-line, which essentially decreases the total area capable of sustaining grazing. Less total grazing area will increase the pressure on the area remaining, potentially contributing to over-grazing, erosion and other negative effects on the ecosystems. Human population increase will also infer that more animals will be needed to sustain the population, and with more animals comes even higher pressure on local systems.

thank you Yanqiang Chen yes that is the more suitable way to fill the gap

There is one tree species that grows steadily fast with good trunk , but I don't know the name of the species. It has shade and small leaves but it is not exactly coniferous, and i wouldn't call it broad-leaves either, doesn't shade its leaves. The indigenous trees are reputably take long time to grow. Anyway, Eyob Tenkir can you suggest the suitable street trees?

Please take a look at this useful PDF attachment.

Thanks Akhil Baby

Hi Gabriel! Not sure what scale you're hoping to work on -- here are some links to various snow and ice core methods:

https://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/factpub/ah169/SnowSurveySamplingGuideHandout.pdf

https://swpcemp.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Snow-Sampling-Procedure-and-Summary.pdf

http://www.nwd-mr.usace.army.mil/rcc/snowsurvey/SnowSurvMethod2018.pdf

https://icecores.org/about-ice-cores

Most of the snow sampling methods are for estimating the amount of water in snowpack (in dry states in the US, these methods are used to project drinking water supply/shortage). If you use the SWE methods alongside your microplastic analyses, it will give you a rudimentary method of estimating the mass loads of microplastics in the snowpack of the region you're sampling. The NSF ice cores are probably overkill for what you want to do, but I still thought the info might be interesting to you.

Good luck!

Dear Joshua!

Try to see the following paper: Jasper Knight & Stefan Grab "The Drakensberg Escarpment: Mountain Processes at the Edge." March 2015. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-03560-4_6. In book: Landscapes and Landforms of South Africa

Dear Bartłomiej,

Thank you for your reply and accepting / proposing initiative for future cooperation. I am dealing and I am very much interested in these issues. I have the opinion that multidisciplinary approaches may bring added values.

I read some of your papers. Nice materials.

In case you are interested, we may do together, as a phase two:

(1) Bartłomiej SZYPUŁA, (2) Velibor SPALEVIC, (3) Janusz GODZIEK, (4) Hydrogeologists/Soil Scientist from Poland, (5) with one of my colleagues:

Impact of land use changes on soil erosion intensity and peak discharge: Case study Ochotnica Valley, Poland

You have ready all the analysis for land use in the past time profiles: 1879, 1934, 1978.

In case you are ready to provide me few more data, we may, using my models do the analysis on the Impact of land use changes on soil erosion intensity and peak discharge.

1-You have land use data

2-You may easily prepare the table with the following data:

2a-Contour line length, Liz, km;

2b-The area between the two neighboring contour lines, fiz, km²;

3- You may ask as the assistance one of your hydrogeologists to provide you data on area permeability, based on geological map:

3a-A part of the river basin consisted of a very permeable products from rocks (limestone, sand, gravel), fp;

3b-A part of the river basin area consisted of medium permeable rocks (slates, marls, brownstone), fpp;

3c-A part of the river basin consisted of poor water permeability rocks (heavy clay, compact eruptive), fo;

4-Soil map of the Study area

And we will do the rest of 40 parameters.

Please have a look on some examples:

1. Spalevic, V. (2019). Assessment of Soil Erosion Processes by Using the 'IntErO' Model: Case Study of the Duboki Potok, Montenegro. Journal of Environmental Protection and Ecology, 20(2): 657-665. https://docs.google.com/a/jepe-journal.info/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=amVwZS1qb3VybmFsLmluZm98amVwZS1qb3VybmFsfGd4OjcyNWI4NzkwZjIzNDYzZjM

2. Spalevic, V., Lakicevic, M., Radanovic, D., Billi, P., Barovic, G., Vujacic, D., Sestras, P., Khaledi Darvishan, A. (2017): Ecological-Economic (Eco-Eco) modelling in the river basins of Mountainous regions: Impact of land cover changes on sediment yield in the Velicka Rijeka in Montenegro. Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca: 45(2):602-610.

3. Chalise, D.; Kumar, L.; Spalevic, V.; Skataric, G. (2019). Estimation of Sediment Yield and Maximum Outflow Using the IntErO Model in the Sarada River Basin of Nepal. Water, 11, 952. https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/11/5/952

4. Nikolic, G., Spalevic, V.*, Curovic, M., Khaledi Darvishan, A., Skataric, G., Pajic, M., Kavian, A., Tanaskovik, V. (2019): Variability of Soil Erosion Intensity Due to Vegetation Cover Changes: Case Study of Orahovacka Rijeka, Montenegro. Not Bot Horti Agrobo, 2019, 47(1): 237-248. DOI: 47.15835/nbha47111310

5. Tavares, S, Spalevic, V., Avanzi, J, Nogueira, D., Silva, M.L.N., Mincato, R.L. (2019): Modelling of water erosion by the erosion potential method in a pilot sub basin in southern Minas Gerais [Modelagem da erosão hídrica pelo método de erosão potencial emuma sub-bacia hidrográfica de referência no sul de Minas Gerais]. Semina: Ciências Agrárias, Londrina, 40 (2): 555-572. DOI: 10.5433/1679-0359.2019v40n2p555

6. Vujacic, D., Barovic, G., Djekovic, V., Andjelkovic, A., Khaledi Darvishan, A., Gholami, L., Jovanovic, M. and Spalevic, V. (2017): Calculation of Sediment Yield using the “River Basin” and “Surface and Distance” Models: A Case Study of the Sheremetski Potok Watershed, Montenegro. Journal of Environmental Protection and Ecology, 18(3): 1193-1202.

Looking forward to your reply and position.

Velibor

Dr. Sc. Velibor SPALEVIC,

Novaka Miloseva, 81000 Podgorica, Montenegro

Mobile/Viber/WhatsApp: +382 67 201 222

E-mail: velibor.spalevic@gmail.com

Annex:

Input data

River basin area, F, km²;

The length of the watershed, O, km;

Natural length of the main watercourse, Lv, km;

The shortest distance between the fountainhead and mouth, Lm, km;

The total length of the main watercourse with tributaries of I and II class, ΣL, km;

River basin length measured by a series of parallel lines, Lb, km;

The area of the bigger river basin part, Fv, km²;

The area of the smaller river basin part, Fm, km²;

Contour line length, Liz, km;

The area between the two neighboring contour lines, fiz, km²;

Altitude of the first contour line, h0, m;

Equidistance, Δh, m;

The lowest river basin elevation, Hmin, m;

The highest river basin elevation, Hmax, m;

A part of the river basin consisted of a very permeable products from rocks (limestone, sand, gravel), fp;

A part of the river basin area consisted of medium permeable rocks (slates, marls, brownstone), fpp;

A part of the river basin consisted of poor water permeability rocks (heavy clay, compact eruptive), fo;

A part of the river basin under forests, fš;

A part of the river basin under grass, meadows, pastures and orchards, ft;

A part of the river basin under bare land, plough-land and ground without grass vegetation, fg;

The volume of the torrent rain, hb, mm;

Incidence, Up, years;

Average annual air temperature, t0, °C;

Average annual precipitation, Hgod, mm;

Types of soil products and related types, Y:

Sand, gravel and incoherent soils:

Saline soils...:

Decomposed limestone and marls:

Serpentines, red sand stones, flishe deposits:

Podzols and parapodzols, decomposed schist:

Solid and Schist limestone, Terra Rosa and Humic soil:

Brown forest soils and Mountain soils:

Epieugleysol and Marshlands:

Good structured Chernozems and alluvial well-structured deposits:

Bare, compact igneous:

River basin planning, coefficient of the river basin planning, Xa:

Bare lands:

Plough-lands:

Orchards and vineyards:

Mountain pastures:

Meadows:

Degraded forests:

Well-constituted forests.

Numeral equivalents of visible and clearly exposed erosion process, φ:

RESULTS:

Coefficient of the river basin form, A;

Coefficient of the watershed development, m;

Average river basin width, B, km;

(A)symmetry of the river basin, a;

Density of the river network of the basin, G;

Coefficient of the river basin tortuousness, K;

Average river basin altitude, Hsr, m;

Average elevation difference of the river basin, D, m;

Average river basin decline, Isr, %;

The height of the local erosion base of the river basin, Hleb, m;

Coefficient of the erosion energy of the river basin's relief, Er;

Coefficient of the region's permeability, S1;

Coefficient of the vegetation cover, S2;

Analytical presentation of the water retention in inflow, W, m;

Energetic potential of water flow during torrent rains, 2gDF^½, m km s;

Maximal outflow from the river basin, Qmax, m³/s;

Temperature coefficient of the region, T;

Coefficient of the river basin erosion, Z;

Production of erosion material in the river basin Wgod, m³/god;

Coefficient of the deposit retention, Ru;

Real soil losses Ggod, m³/god;

Real soil losses per km2 Ggod/km², m³/km², god;

Interesting insights on the matter may be provided by the ESPON SUPER project (Sustainable Urbanisation and Land Use in European Regions).

The inception report is published already, and the interim report should follow in a month or so.

Hope this helps!

A key point is going to be what you mean by "near" mountains. The closer you are to high-elevation, surface, drainage divides, the less likely you are to have water with high total dissolved solids (TDS). This is especially true when speaking of groundwater that is emerging in springs and into streams' baseflow. But that isn't an issue of near, that is in the mountains.

In the arid western U.S. there is inter-basin flow. In deep ground water one can encounter very high TDS at the edges of mountain ranges, and under mountain ranges.

Another source of high TDS to keep in mind is hydrothermal phenomena. In areas where there is high heat-flow, or where faults allow for deep circulation of groundwater that then returns to the surface, the TDS of ground water can become very high.

There are also issues with sulfide minerals and the pH of groundwater.

The foregoing, along with what previous posters have mentioned, mean that the answer to the question you posed is "no". Groundwater near mountains is not always fresh, not even groundwater that comes to the surface.

The second part of your question might be rephrased as "why does groundwater near mountains tend to be fresh?" I think that the primary answer to that question relates to the residency times of groundwater. Mountains tend to be areas of higher precipitation due to orographic effects. Thus, they tend to be areas of higher groundwater recharge. Therefore, most groundwater coming to the surface has had a relatively short residency time in the ground and this equates to little time to dissolve solids. Just remember that these are all generalizations. There will always be exceptions.

Dear Jalal,

They're good photos of interesting mites! I would also recommend contacting Dr Monika Fajfer, who has been publishing several excellent works on the Pterygosomatidae. See, for example:

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/b291/067e07fa08044c3689d6b52a79935f073e37.pdf

Her contact details are given on the title page, and she may be able to help.

Kind regards, Owen.

Obviosly , a nice weather will enhance your mood / creative mind ie research ability .

1-you can see this thesis of my laboratory?????

2-you can see my paper

my best regard's

Well, Hereinafter link good details

Presentation on theme: "Climate change impacts on water cycle in the Tibetan Plateau: A review Kun Yang Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research Chinese Academy of Sciences The fifth."— Presentation transcript:

https://slideplayer.com/slide/6033249/

Regards

You might like having a look to this link https://www.ted.com/talks/allan_savory_how_to_green_the_world_s_deserts_and_reverse_climate_change?language=en#t-1320495

Kind regards.

Antonio