Latin America - Science topic

Neoliberalism makes the rich class richer, the poor class poorer, and the middle class non-existent

A mim interessa, estudo princesas, filmes, empoderamento, mulher maravilha, bruxas das estórias e estereótipos nos contis de fadas, ets.

Marcello Messina I greatly appreciate your detailed response and the link to the document that analyzes this issue from such a perspective. The intrinsic relationship between music and geopolitics is a fascinating and critical topic for understanding the complexity of Latin American music. I will read the document carefully and am eager to delve deeper into this discussion and its implications in the academic discourse on regional and cultural music.

Thank you, Ali but that exactly do you mean?

In fact that is precisely the problem I raise with my questions. Searching for "Lithium Resource in the world" seems referring me to Google? Mmmm

Anyway, I google and the system answers me: "According to the U.S. Geological Survey, there are 98 million metric tons of Lithium resources across the globe with the largest portion of these resources (53%) located in three South American countries" etc. Mmmmm

If I filter answers in search of more consistent results there is an inflation of primary and secondary data intertwined, where it's also complicated to distinguish between national and commercial interests

Related to the Lithium value, even pulling the financial thread it is not easy to determine its real market value and how it has evolved over time. Google, in this case, highlights a specialized website that don't provide any real source

Actually, this is a typical commodities problem, I know, but I wonder if there are some reliable estimation models that have already been proposed/constructed

Thank you again

The adverse effects that may occur during the pharmacological treatment of visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis can vary depending on the specific medication used. Here are some of the common adverse effects associated with commonly used drugs:

It is important to note that the frequency and severity of adverse effects may vary among individuals and can be influenced by factors such as the duration of treatment, dosage, and underlying health conditions. Patients undergoing treatment for leishmaniasis should be closely monitored by healthcare professionals to promptly identify and manage any potential adverse effects.

Here is a good resource

Hello, Professor Diana-Abasi Ibanga.

I am very happy to receive your message and to know of your interest! Your research topic is extremely welcome, meaning that it would not only be important, but also essential for our journal to have an African perspective. I think this is a great start for us to establish radical dialogues.

Articles can be written in one of the following languages: Portuguese, English, Spanish, French or Italian.

link to submission

Can I count on your contribution?

If you have any questions, please let me know.

Carlos Jesus Molina Ricaurte, I am open to collaboration. Do you have a research project on this topic?

Dear Md Alimul Haque You are right. There is a wonderful source of identified examples of hijacked journals:https://retractionwatch.com/the-retraction-watch-hijacked-journal-checker/ The journal “AMA, Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America” is included in the list and the website https://www.shin-norinco.com is fake. Most likely this is the reason why they are discontinued from Scopus (see for example and the comments section here https://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=65672&tip=sid ).

The original website is most likely: https://www.agriculturalmechanization.com (here you can see that it is a subscription-based journal and only the fake one demands an APC). If you want to see how the real thing looks like check here https://www.agriculturalmechanization.com/download/

Indeed, this journal title (magazine) is the victim of hijacking.

Best regards.

Hi. Also check this:

Hola Pablo. Me parece que en el caso de la parteria en mexico se hicieron algunas reformas hace unos años.

Como resultado en CONACYT se impulso un programa de parteria tradicional para dar reconocimiento a la sabiduria de las mujeres y hombres que cumplen dicha funcion.

Saludos

Can you translate Vietnamese to Mexican datasets? https://www.researchgate.net/post/Can_you_show_me_Vietnamese_datasets

In short term future all forms of energy conversion into electrical energy should be considered, but more effectively renewable energy. Here in Brazil, there are several regions with better hydro, solar and wind power, which, even if distant and watertight, can still be easily integrated into the country's energy matrix and serve the country and its neighbors countrys in a broad way. That is until more efficient energy sources (Nuclear Fusion) are available in long-term future.

Annika provided good resources. I would like to make some addition : https://www.kdnuggets.com/2021/05/awesome-list-datasets.html

Two useful books:

PULLEN, Christopher & COOPER, Margaret. LGBT Identity and Online New Media. London: Routledge, 2010.

PULLEN, Christopher (ed.). LGBT Transnational Identity and the Media. London: Palgrave, 2012.

They certainly can, especially for those Latinamerican countries which already have experience with conventional nuclear reactors (Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico). Their main advantage is that they already have nuclear technology infrastructure, and the implementation of this new concept will be more accessible. Nevertheless, other countries without this experience can still benefit from the SMR concept. They can be more easily adapted to their national grid than the large Nuclear Power Plants, and the safety and non-proliferation requirements are less complex. In my view, SMRs can be a good energy alternative for many developing nations.

Alex Córdoba-Aguilar can you explain it better? It sounded like we are bringing you diseases from our countries here in South America.

Dear Haimanot,

Yes, that's right. The key factor of economic development is the wealth of the economy and economic entities in particular categories of production factors, including production factors and / or resources enabling the offering of specific services. According to the first trend in the history of economic thought, the school of classical economics includes various resources, raw materials, processed factors of production, etc. classified under three headings: land, labor, capital, among the three key categories of production factors. However, during the 3rd technological revolution in the second half of the 20th century, the development of information technology, ICT information technologies, the development of information and other services based on these technologies, followed by the development of the Internet and other types of technologies, including Industry 4.0, technologies typical of the current fourth technological revolution ( e.g. robotics, artificial intelligence, learning machines, Internet of Things, smart technologies, cloud computing, computerized multidimensional simulation models, Blockchain etc.) this three-element classification of production factors (factors of economic growth) has proved insufficient. In the context of neoclassical trends in economic thought that have been developing since the 1970s, the growing importance of such factors of production processes as: technology, information, data, innovation, entrepreneurship is indicated. In developing economies that aspire to become rich and fully developed economies in the future, having advanced, modern technologies of production and / or offering services is a particularly important development factor. Developing economies are also often knowledge-based economies. In knowledge-based economies, new technologies are becoming one of the key factors of production, economic development and comparative advantage. First of all, information technologies and Industry 4.0. As a result, international technology transfer is sometimes deliberately restricted. On the other hand, internationally operating forms of technology significantly contribute to technology transfer through direct investment carried out in other countries. The pandemic, through the increase in the scale of digitization and internationalization of economic processes, could accelerate this kind of cross-border flow of knowledge and information regarding the methods and techniques of production processes and offering services. Moreover, the ongoing economic and information globalization is also a factor accelerating the processes of cross-border transfer of new technologies. In addition, in the face of growing global problems, such as the health crisis caused by the SARS-CoV-2 (Covid-19) coronavirus pandemic, the growing climate crisis caused by climate change, the progressing global warming process, more frequent droughts and forest fires, increasing environmental pollution, etc. international cooperation should be developed in order to increase the effectiveness of solving global problems of civilization development. As part of this cooperation, new eco-innovations and pro-environmental technologies should be implemented into production processes as soon as possible and should be disseminated on a global scale. The current and future climate change, the growing global climate crisis, like the pandemic, is a global problem. Therefore, solving this kind of key global problems of the development of civilization, creating new, effective instruments for solving these global problems should also be carried out at the international and global level. Therefore, new technologies that are used to solve these global problems should also be available to all countries of the world. In 2020, the SARS-CoV-2 (Covid-19) coronavirus pandemic caused a deep economic crisis in the economies of many countries. The scale of the crisis was very diversified depending on the branch and sector structure of the economy. In 2021, thanks to the interventionist, anti-crisis instruments of public aid offered to enterprises and companies in crisis, it was possible to quickly lead the economies out of the economic crisis of 2020. One of the important factors of anti-crisis state aid are also targeted subsidies for the implementation of new investment projects in which modern technologies are used. Efficiently applied anti-crisis programs of socio-economic policy contribute to the growth of entrepreneurship and innovation of companies, enterprises and other types of economic entities. However, on a supra-national scale, international trade wars are still waged between some of the world's major economies, and barriers to the transfer of modern technologies and the flow of production factors are still applied. Such restrictive measures contribute to a slowdown in economic development and limited availability of new technologies for developing countries. On the other hand, globally operating international corporations and the information globalization developing thanks to the Internet contribute to the dissemination of technology on an international scale.

Best regards,

Dariusz

Peace and reversing public distrust - antecedent crimes (...)

Dear Dr. Ben David Anthony Bird, As a topic for a potential PhD, I think it's a great idea. Currently there are already footballers in Serie A.

To get an idea, take a look at the following page:

blog.marathonbet.tv/futbolistas-venezolanos-europa/

Hello, Irene

You can check the monthly precipitation for the state of Pernambuco, Brazil, provided by the Meteorological Laboratory of the Institute of Technology of

Pernambuco (Laboratório de Meteorologia do Instituto de Tecnologia de Pernambuco – LAMEP/ITEP). The monthly series of precipitation, with time span from 1950 to 2012, correspond to records obtained from 133 meteorological stations.

More info in:

da Silva, A. S. A.; Stosic, B.; Menezes, R. S. C.; Singh, V. P. Comparison of Interpolation Methods for Spatial Distribution of Monthly Precipitation in the State of Pernambuco, Brazil. J. Hydrol. Eng., 2019, 24 (3), 04018068.

https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0001743.

gruesse dich, Hristo

Hello Reyna, I am an undergraduate student studying Nursing and would love to connect with you and collaborate on your work.

kindly see

Seasonal Migrations of Pantala flavescens (Odonata: Libellulidae) in Middle Asia and Understanding of the Migration Model in the Afro-Asian Region Using Stable Isotopes of Hydrogen Sergey N. Borisov 1,*, Ivan K. Iakovlev 1 , Alexey S. Borisov 1 , Mikhail Yu. Ganin 2 and Alexei V. Tiunov 3 1 Institute of Systematics and

Yes, Prof. Philipp Altmann.

Venezuela increased its research and university capabilities with the Alliance for Progress.

It was the second part of a new start (industrialization started before with P. Jiménez in the 1950s) but it served for all the industrial (mainly electrical and oil sectors) and university development in the 70s and 80s.

President F. Kennedy visited Venezuela in 1961 following the Alliance for Progress plan, when R. Betancourt was president.

I think this paper will help you. Best Regards.

Hi Alejandra Hurtado-Giraldo

I think TRIM is the most common method to study trend of avian population.

This method can help you in missing data.

Good luck,

Can i help you with doc on TRIM ?

The findings, published in Nature tomorrow and Behavioral Sciences this week, raise questions about the practice of drawing universal claims about human psychology and behavior based on research samples from WEIRD societies.

“The foundations of human psychology and behavior have been built almost exclusively on research conducted on subjects from WEIRD societies,” says UBC Psychology and Economics Prof. Joe Henrich, who led the study with UBC co-authors Prof. Steven Heine and Prof. Ara Norenzayan.

“While students from Western nations are a convenient, low-cost data pool, our findings suggest that they are also among the least representative populations one could find for generalizing about humans.”

The study, which reviews the comparative database of research from across the behavioral sciences, finds that subjects from WEIRD societies are more individualistic, analytic, concerned with fairness, existentially anxious and less conforming and attentive to context compared to those from non-WEIRD societies.

Marcus Vinicius C. Alves search fot those theories and you will get more of the genre, sir.

All the best!

Dear Marcelo Eduardo Rojas Vidal the levels of democratic quality in Latin America are affected by the political personalism that, based on its history, is supported by the “economic crisis” factors, which determines the rise of political figures that aim to neutralise democracy and occupy the space of the ideological discussion, placing themselves as the law and the public institutions. Kind regards, Ernani

Dear Muhammed Ashraful Alam the COVID-19 crisis is not just a health crisis. It brings numerous uncertainties that impact our societies, aggravating social inequalities, undermining progress on economic development on a global scale, generating political instability, obstructing objectives and programs on sustainability, and affecting adversely the livelihood of families and citizens, particularly, in vulnerable conditions. Kind regards, Ernani

What makes you think that I, a modest Medical Anthropologist with some experience in medical aspects of people's migration, am an expert in this particular matter?

Get Castro's Cuba system down, get the commies. As simple as that, Prof. Pablo. Once forever. No Mercy upon commies!

The joint of populism and militarism are new gained skills for internacionalistas + the lack of attention from US policy during Obama and previous administrations.

El patio trasero se les lleno de basura, no les interesó en lo más mínimo lo que nos pasaba a lo interno en nuestros países, ahora la tienen en su propio jardín.

US South command recently joined the slogan "enduring promises" with most Latin American countries. I guess is too late. The commies are everywhere, unfortunately.

Observe lo que pasa en Perú, donde sendero luminoso vuelve a hacer atentados, el nobel a Santos fue un tiro al piso y un cheque fácil.

La FARC y el ELN vuelven a arremeter con fuerza en Colombia y Venezuela, y vendrán más eventualidades pues el encierro debido al virus los favorece.

Ellos no duermen. El continente está plagado de intelectuales de izquierda. Eso creó.

Dear Muhammed Ashraful Alam the COVID-19 has revealed that there are common challenges that have to be faced by the world community reinforcing the emergent need for global action to address people‘s basic needs and to reconstruct fairer and resilient paradigms for our society. One of the suggested forms is based on the idea of the green recovery that could enhance the implementation of the SDGs to end poverty, protect our planet and ensure prosperity, rather than return to the former social patterns that would let us more vulnerable to future crises. Besides the stimulus packages in the macroeconomic sphere, it is important to enhance the sustainability criteria in recovery efforts at small and medium scale initiatives, focusing on potential changes in production models and consumer behaviors through lower levels of governance that would take more than two year. Kind regards, Ernani

Dear Muhammed Ashraful Alam

The consequences of the coronavirus in Latin America will be devastating, not only in terms of morbidity, mortality, and impact on health systems but also in economic activity and population mobility. This consideration reveals the need for responses in multiples and coordinated levels of governance I would like to invite to access my e-book:

Kind regards,

Ernani

Dear Muhammed Ashraful Alam the IMF predicts that the world will enter into a recession worst than the Great Depression of 1930, with a preliminary estimation of the economic impact of the crisis at US$ 2 trillion. The International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that approximately 25 million people could be unemployed and those in informal activities would suffer most from the absence of social protection.

Speaking as an early career academic from the Global South, Africa to be specific, I think characterizing decolonial (decolonisation/decoloniality) scholarship as a fashion is very simplistic. Decolonial scholarship is a war/struggle for epistemic freedom. It is a struggle to have multiple centres of knowledge. It is about unlearning the predominantly Eurocentric forms of knowledge and methodologies in order to learn inclusive methodologies, to be able to have our own styles of writing and framing our knowledge perspectives. A lot of our knowledge and scholarship is sidelined in the knowledge industry that follows a Eurocentric script. We need to be acknowledged as centres of knowledge instead of exporters of raw data and importers of theories.

The biggest challenge we have is that we were produced by the very same Eurocentric system that has taken away our epistemic freedoms. That is why we have to continuously unlearn in order to learn. So there is agency in the decolonial scholarship, it is not fashion at all.

Thanks for sharing dear Alphonsus Nwoye

Brazil is over A MILLION infected now and deaths are over 50 THOUSAND. Situation is spinning out of control and in some states non-essential businesses are reopening. Brace yourselves for numbers of 6 digits in the death toll here by the end of July if no serious strategy against the pandemic is taken. That's the situation. Updates in a couple of weeks if I am not the next.

Urban populations are always going to be at greater risk. The fact that the population is physically closer and interacts more creates a breeding ground for the virus. This can tend to make authorities home in on these areas in order to control a fire like spread of the virus. However, this can lead to rural communities once hit with the virus slow to respond because the ability for the recognition its a community problem and not a individual one takes longer to filter through. A bit like lots of little fires spread over a greater distance. The urban spread has multiple fire fighting facilities while the rural has one fire engine running around trying to put them out.

Nuestra Universidad fue creada para eso, fundamentalmente bajo el impulso del ex presidente Lula. Yo trabajo en el Área de Relaciones Internacionales e Integración y coordiné hasta enero un Programa de Posgraduación en Integración Contemporánea de América Latina. Allí fui supervisor del posdoctorado de tu compatriota el querido amigo Willy Soto Acosta del cual tenemos una entrañable memoria. Tenemos muchos grupos de investigación trabajando diversos aspectos.

It's my pleasure... Many thanks for initiating the discussion...

Social inequality occurs when resources in a given society are distributed unevenly, typically. In todays world (Wermuth, L. A. (2003). Global inequality and human needs: Health and illness in an increasingly unequal world. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. )

Social inequality could linked to economic inequality, education inequality, racial inequality, wealth inequality or health care inequality.The fact is we are living in increasingly Unequal World. Some form of inequality can be related to corruption While others

Indeed, The study of territories can help investigate the mechanisms by which social inequalities are produced and reproduced at the local level and reduce disparities .

A recent article:

Always interested in your ideas and works, Prof. Aurelio Hess!

What do you mean by digital fabrications?

Hi Marek hocam,

Turkey presents a highly different picture in terms of de-privatisation in HE sector. TR has two uni types, public and (non-profit) foundation unies, and no legal allowance to establish private/profit-oriented unies. The TR government also provides free HE education in public unies (including associate, undergraduate, master and doctoral education programmes) for a long time, almost last 15 years. Moreover, the government basically funds everything in public unies, including salaries, student credits (for life expenses), R&D budget, etc. Interestingly, the TR government is also the main funding body for most of foundation unies. However, a couple of months ago the government announced the draft of 11th national deveopment until 2023, the centenary year of TR. This draft includes the item on the possible legal arrangement for private unies. As a result, the government is still funding around 90% of HE sector in TR. Now, we are waiting to see what will happen after 11th development plan and the potential private unies in TR.

Given above, I can comment that a high internal de-privatisation generated a sort of privilege for HE sector, while no need for intensive external de-privarisation in the composition of TR HE.

Best,

B.

Dear Oscar,

I suggest you to consider the Association of Field Ornithologists who promotes several research in Latin America

and also the Sociedade Brasileira de Ornitologia

Best

Michele

Since we judge the elimination by the Osmans on the Armenians as genocide, since we judge the war of the Germans vs the Herero tribe in 1904 in German Southwest Africa (today Namibia) as a genocide, then obviously the conquest in America was a genocide...technical argument

Perhaps could be useful to read the following paper: Scientific systems in Latin America: performance, networks, and collaborations with industry https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10961-017-9631-7

It depends on how you define the word "change". If you are referring to the life condition of people in certain areas, then probably this program will do. But if you mean Chinese government will be the new leader of the world, then definitely NO. China is by far unable to produce any cultural hegemony to confirm its status as a world leader. Look at Chinese people themselves. Aren't they trying hard to learn English so that one day they can go to study or even live in the USA?

If China cannot come up with its own system of cultural hegemony which is made up of a series of dominant discourses, BRI will be money down the drain. But it is still a good attemp to challenge USA, making it more aware of what it is to the world.

it is a very broad topic. I would start with disaster risk reduction, which includes early warning, preparation and similar. Other issues are crops insurance for farmers and support for others in case of damages to properties. I also would check, if literature about the importance of social capital is available. This seems to be a very important field, which often is left out.

Maybe follow also the conference below, which will provide space to discuss case studies around this topic:

Franz-Luitpold Kessler Thanks for the feedback, hope to get more data from other highlands for comparison.

please consult to finance-growth nexus!

Definition is (a logically coherent) restriction. It means that features shared among many (or all) cannot serve as a starting point. It would be much better - and much more correct - to proceed with the definition of "identity" first.

Or, if not, we stay at the "Mediterranian diet" (with the exception of pork) as a basic conclusion.

David you did not read my question in detail:

" I have seen in the last decades in Latin America, that countries such as Brazil, Mexico, Venezuela, Peru and Colombia,..."

"In which other countries, a national science agency classifies and certifies the research groups and researchers officially?"

I am Senior Research of an A1 group, by Colciencias.

Hi,

The mention of an abstract in the reference is important, mostly because not always a full research paper follows this abstract, and it is well known that abstracts are rarely cited, and if the abstract is not mentioned in any reference, its priority could be lost.

It is difficult to say how many papers were rejected on this issue , or why some reviewers do not accept this easily, maybe they are not aware what a rejection of this type of reference could cause.

Hi Graziano,

in Peru, the research has been mostly focused on the acquisition of large scale rural land by agricultural corporations and the subdivision of rural plots. You can see a publication in spanish in this link:

I also suggest to contact CEPES (http://www.cepes.org.pe/), which is an organization researching this topic and runs the Land Property Observatory (http://www.observatoriotierras.info/vigilancia/concentraci%C3%B3n-de-la-propiedad).

There are many big corporations involved on agro industry and urbanization at the same time, which is something curious. However, as far as I know, there is no recent research on urban land grabbing.

Dear Segun Michael Abegunde

It is all about mineral deposits of any type in Latin America and the Caribbean and that is the only restriction we have thought of. One may send contributions at any scale of study regardless of their focus, whether it is mineralogy, the characteristics of mineralizing fluids (or their sources), timing of mineralization, local metallogeny, regional metallogeny, etc. Or all the above at once.

Hello Kamila, oh thank you very much for your kind words, in fact community participatory approach and co-creation would give appropriation and a sense of meaning on its citizens life's, a very meaningful way to build a community in a neighborhood. Best wishes...!

An interesting reference:

Early Childhood Education and Development in Latin America

R Mejía-Arauz, G Quiñones - International Handbook of Early Childhood …, 2018 - Springer

Dear Graziano

Here are some relevant citations:

Thanks Andrew. I have just forwarded on the email I sent in September to the addresses you have provided. I look forward to hearing from you.

Best wishes

Adam

'political judgements cloaked in the language of constitutional principles'

yes indeed!

Are you kidding?

I´ve found the following:

Here is a thesis from Ecuador about cedron (Aloysia tryphilla): http://dspace.ucuenca.edu.ec/bitstream/123456789/1592/1/tgas56.pdf

Hope it´s useful!

Premature de-industrialization is a current debate in Brazil. I would point out, offering a less gloomy view, that this is a natural consequence of the decrease of the industrial sector share in the total GDP, as a country continues to grow. There is a non-linear relationship between GDP per capta and industry as a share of GDP. As a consequence, resources, including labor force, might be transfered out of the industrial sector toward activities, such as services. This is also a natural consequence of urbanization, following industrialization. The challenge of these transition economies is to foster a more productive service sector so that the de-industrialization brings about a service based economy, based in high end and knowledge intensive activieties. Thing about IT and logistic sectors, which are service based. Trade liberalization, although might contribute to shuting down innefficient industries might spur demand for other kind of manufacturing goods, for instance, capital goods, that may end up helping several industrial activities.

hi

Kanase-Patil, A. B., Saini, R. P., & Sharma, M. P. (2010). Integrated renewable energy systems for off grid rural electrification of remote area. Renewable Energy, 35(6), 1342-1349.

Urmee, T., Harries, D., & Schlapfer, A. (2009). Issues related to rural electrification using renewable energy in developing countries of Asia and Pacific. Renewable Energy, 34(2), 354-357.

Ahlborg, H., & Hammar, L. (2014). Drivers and barriers to rural electrification in Tanzania and Mozambique–Grid-extension, off-grid, and renewable energy technologies. Renewable Energy, 61, 117-124.

Byrne, J., Shen, B., & Wallace, W. (1998). The economics of sustainable energy for rural development: a study of renewable energy in rural China. Energy policy, 26(1), 45-54.

Nguyen, K. Q. (2007). Alternatives to grid extension for rural electrification: Decentralized renewable energy technologies in Vietnam. Energy Policy, 35(4), 2579-2589.

Beck, F., & Martinot, E. (2004). Renewable energy policies and barriers. Encyclopedia of energy, 5(7), 365-383.

Mahapatra, S., & Dasappa, S. (2012). Rural electrification: optimising the choice between decentralised renewable energy sources and grid extension. Energy for Sustainable Development, 16(2), 146-154.

Winkler, H. (2005). Renewable energy policy in South Africa: policy options for renewable electricity. Energy Policy, 33(1), 27-38.

Dear Yue,

Re: your first question about the territorial scope of the armed conflicts in Nicaragua and Guatemala, I would say that both conflicts did not encompass the whole national territory. Rather, they were regionally focused, although the regional dynamics changed of course over the course of the wars. In Guatemala, for instance, the 'scorched earth' strategy of the military and military-sponsored governments of the late 1970s and early 1980s, which implied massive human rights violations, was focused on the indigenous highland regions north of Guatemala City. In Nicaragua, most of the fighting between the Ejercito Popular Sandinista and the 'contras' took place in the northern parts of the country, though there was also a violent challenge to the Sandinista regime in the south. I analyse these wars in some depth in my book 'Pacficacion y poder civil en Centroamerica', which is on ResearchGate.

Re: your second question, in my work I conceptualize the wars in Guatemala and Nicaragua as 'anti-regime wars', which I believe is more accurate than the term 'civil war'. The armed conflict in Colombia, by contrast, has been conceptualized by French scholar Daniel Pecaut as a 'war against society' (guerra contra la sociedad). This term speaks to the hybrid nature of the war in Colombia, which evolved from its beginnings in the 1960s to something quite different in the 1980s and 1990s, when the insurgents began making an appearance on the national scene and drugs and drug trafficking (and US-led counter-drug 'efforts') started hitting the country hard, alongside the emergence of the infamous paramilitaries. As is clearly shown in the Basta Ya report of the National Centre for Historical Memory (2013), most of the more than 220,000 fatal victims of the armed conflict in Colombia are civilian (and millions more were displaced and otherwise victimized). They were killed by the paramilitaries, the insurgents, organized crime and the state armed forces. Were the wars in Nicaragua and Guatemala more 'intense' than the one in Colombia? It's difficult to say. In terms of ratio of fatal victims/population, probably yes, especially in Guatemala. But then the wars in the isthmus represented quite different types of wars when compared to the Colombian conflict. I would think that the Colombian conflict was - and is - more 'complex', in terms of the actors and interests involved as well as the historical moment in which it has been playing out - than the (end of Cold War) wars in Central America.

Hope this is helpful.

Markus

That is an interesting question Yue.

I am inclined to agree with Maria Amparo and Nikola but.....

The 1950s were not the disaster that later economists in the 1980s said. Correct

But we cannot go back to the 1950s either, so maybe a golden era but not necessarily relevant today?

Please see Chapter 4 in the attached book which tries to evaluate the 1950s but also before and after

Best wishes for your research!

Ronaldo