Environmental Analysis - Science topic

Thank you IIan for your answer and your paper.

I do hope we can keep talking.

Have a nice weekend,

Hernan L.

You recover nutrients for reuse and you remove for disposal.

Very good topic for discussion. The question itself contains many interesting points. The discussion on this is going on for decades. One thing is clear that all the aforesaid problems do occur, but we have to analyse the pros and cons of the same case by case and region by region and take appropriate decision. IF YOU WANT TO GAIN SOMETHING, YOU HAVE TO LOOSE SOMETHING.

Ways forward to bypass the problems rightly raised in the question:

1. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8959-2_2

2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imic.2015.04.001

3. https://doi.org/10.1108/DPM-02-2017-0043

There are several mathematical algorithms that can be used to estimate the flow of influent and effluent for anaerobic digestion and struvite precipitation processes. Some commonly used methods include mass balance equations, dynamic modeling, and process simulation.

One way to estimate the flow of influent and effluent for anaerobic digestion is to use mass balance equations. This involves determining the amount of organic matter entering and leaving the system, as well as the amount of biogas produced. This can be done by measuring the chemical oxygen demand (COD) or total solids (TS) of the influent and effluent, and using those values to calculate the mass balance.

Another approach is to use dynamic modeling, which involves creating a mathematical model of the system that can predict the behavior of the process over time. This can be done using software such as Aspen Plus or SuperPro Designer, which can simulate the process and predict the flow of influent and effluent.

Simulation is also another approach that can be used to estimate the flow of influent and effluent. This method involves creating a computer model of the system that can simulate the process and predict the flow of influent and effluent. This can be done using software such as MATLAB or Simulink, which can simulate the process and predict the flow of influent and effluent.

Ultimately, the specific algorithm or method that is chosen will depend on the available data, the specific requirements of the system, and the level of accuracy and precision desired.

This is a good question.

Online version delivered through a combination of self-paced eLearning of doing environmental analysis on selected parameters

Quality and cost are directly impacted by measurement uncertainty. Many industries including research, manufacturing, finance, and healthcare rely on reports that contain quantitative data from measurement results. Product quality, experiment results, financial decisions, and medical diagnosis can all be directly impacted by errors introduced from the omission of measurement uncertainty. Without awareness or consideration of the impact measurement uncertainty has on quality, the greater the probability of increased operating costs and failure rates.

Measurement uncertainty is critical to risk assessment and decision making. Organizations make decisions every day based on reports containing quantitative measurement data. If measurement results are not accurate, then decision risks increase.

The need for increased accuracy is not as important as the need to measure quality. Accuracy should only be adequate enough to effectively satisfy each organizations established requirements.

The measurement of uncertainty is not an easy task. The following link address the steps of measurement of uncertainty

https://www.isobudgets.com/7-steps-to-calculate-measurement-uncertainty/

Dear Prof Nafees, There is wide doubt about strong environment laws, holding them responsible for economic loss. I agree with you in this regard!, In fact this question comes to our mind: Will environment regulation be weakened?

Reham Al Nuaimi Change the carrier gas from argon. This paper mentions instrument conditions:

Thanks for your interest. I would suggest you to follow the first step: Rinse these cartridges with the weakest elution strength solvent (for example, water or water with 5% MeOH for C-18 SPE adsorbent). Alternatively, you may try with 10% MeOH in ethyl acetate and then you may add Hexane.

Good luck

Agree with the comments of Daniel Zepeda Rivas and Usama Badawy

Good question..

stay home

I want to express my humble opinion to Dr. Muhammad Anwar Iqbal on his interesting question.

Before talking about my personal experience related to the mathematical model, I would like to appreciate prof. Tom Koch and prof. Olivier Serrat for their s deeply thoughts that are reflected in their answers.

In 2007, the university refused my proposal for my desertion until I have designed and wrote the mathematical model. The chair of the committee considered the mathematical model as a core request. Writing that model has cost me an extra year of hard work.

Now, I believe that this model is an integral aspect of linking the conceptual framework or theoretical framework to practice. Without this model, bridging the gap between theory and practice is very difficult.

Evens Emmanuel thank you for useful information provided.

Quynh - I found a detailed description of the procedure for converting acesulfame potassium into acesulfame. It is published in a paper entitled "Polymorphism in acesulfame sweetener: Structure-property and stability relationships of bending and brittle crystals" which was published in Chemical Communications 2010, 46, 2562-3564. The Electronic Supplementary Information (ESI) is available free of charge (see attached).

Thanks

Dear Eko,

You may used chlor-a and phytoplankton products as indicators for nutrients concentration with empirical modelling.

Best of luck.

I think the following link will be very much useful to know about porous graphitic carbon and GCB as well:

Please look at the following below links which may help you in your analysis:

Thanks

@ Olalekan Adekola, please I need a copy of these article "Adekola, O., Whanda, S., & Ogwu, F. (2012). Assessment of policies and legislation that affect management of wetlands in Nigeria. Wetlands, 32(4), 665-677" It is not free online.

You may want to have more insights from this recent work detailing the different down scaling approaches

Thank you @Khaled Elgendy

I would like to participate but the call for abstract page clearly stated 'All scientific staff and students of TU Vienna are cordially invited to participate in this event'. There is no sign for inviting external participants, could you clarify?

anything related to India then I am really intersted

Excellent question and answers, according to our team study in Iran: lead in water pipes , traffic intensity , residential wastes , vehicles and urban industries !

Please kindly see the attached article!

Dear A. Mannan Rouhani

A mere 11 elements constitute 99.9% of the atoms in the human body. These are typically divided into major and minor elements. The four major elements, H, O, C, and N, make up approximately 99% of the human body, and seven minor elements, Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, S, and Cl, make up another 0.9% of the body (Combs 2005). Approximately 18 additional elements — called trace elements — are considered essential in small amounts to maintain human life. However, human health experts do not universally agree on the exact number and identity of these trace elements. Out of the approximately 29 elements considered essential for human life, 18 are either essential or beneficial to plants and are obtained from soil, and most of the other elements can be taken up from the soil by plants (Brevik 2013a).

Negative Health Effects

Heavy Metals

Exposure to heavy metals through soil contact is a major human health concern. Arsenic is a metalloid, but it is commonly grouped with the heavy metals. The heavy metals of greatest concern for human health include: As, Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, and Zn (Fergusson 1990). Heavy metals enter soils naturally through the weathering of rocks, but they have also been introduced into soils through human activity. Heavy metals are the by-products of mining ores, and they are present in mine spoils and in the immediate surroundings of metal processing plants. Heavy metals are released into soils from landfills that contain industrial and household wastes and from sewage sludge that comes from wastewater treatment plants. E-wastes, or wastes associated with electronic appliances, are an increasing source of Pb, Sb, Hg, Cd, and Ni in the soil (Robinson 2009). Urban soils are particularly susceptible to significant accumulations of heavy metals from automobile exhaust, coal burning, erosion of metal structures, and refuse incineration. In agricultural settings, the use of fertilizers, manures, and pesticides has also contributed to the accumulation of heavy metals in soils (Senesi et al. 1999). Arsenic has been used in pesticides, and the build-up of arsenic in orchard soils is problematic since it may persist for decades (Walsh et al. 1977). The heavy metals with the most toxicity in humans, including Cd, Pb, Hg, and As, are those with no biological function that disrupt enzymatic activities commonly affecting the brain and kidneys (Hu 2002).

Organic Chemicals

Organic chemicals have been deposited into the soil both naturally and anthropogenically, and many of the organic chemicals deposited into the air and water eventually end up in the soil. Soil contamination with organic chemicals is a serious problem in all nations (Aelion 2009). A large amount of these organic chemicals come from the agricultural application of herbicides, insecticides, and nematicides (Figure 2). Soil pollution with organic chemicals is not limited to farming areas. Soils in urban areas are also polluted with organic chemicals as a result of industrial activities, coal burning, motor vehicle emissions, waste incineration, and sewage and solid waste dumping (Leake et al. 2009). Both farming and urban areas have soil contamination that includes a complex mixture of organic chemicals, metals, and microorganisms caused by municipal and domestic septic system waste, farm animal waste, and other biowastes (Pettry et al. 1973). A more recent health concern includes pharmaceutical waste derived from antibiotics, hormones, and antiparasitic drugs used to treat humans and domestic animals (Albihn 2001).

The most common types of organic chemicals found in soil include polyhalogenated biphenyls, aromatic hydrocarbons, insecticides, herbicides, fossil fuels, and the by-products of fossil fuel combustion (Burgess 2013). These organic chemicals are highly diluted in the upper layers of the soil, and they form chemical mixtures used in reactions involving microorganisms. We have very little toxicological information about the health effects of these chemical mixtures (Carpenter et al. 2002). Studies of the health effects of low concentrations and mixtures of these chemicals in soil have been very limited (Feron et al. 2002). Due to the very long half-lives of many organic chemicals, they are referred to as "persistent organic pollutants." These persistent organic pollutants are organic chemicals that resist decomposition in the environment and bioaccumulate as they move up the food chain. An example of this is 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane (DDT), which was shown to disrupt the hormonal systems of raptors (Vega et al. 2007).

Airborne dust can impact human health, especially when the particles are less than 10 microns in size (Monteil 2008). The main direct health effect of inhaled dust is irritation of the respiratory passages and diseases, such as lung cancer. However, airborne dust can carry additional materials, such as pathogens, harmful gases, organic chemicals, heavy metals, insects, pollen, and radioactive materials, that can cause other health problems (Bartos et al. 2009). Humans can breathe airborne dust containing toxicants into the lungs, where the toxicants may enter the bloodstream. Cultivation for agricultural production and deflation (wind erosion) from unpaved road and work sites and denuded fields can introduce dusts into the atmosphere. Airborne dust from Africa is a significant health concern for North American soils. Clouds of dust from the Sahara and Sahel deserts follow the trade winds across the Atlantic Ocean, and African dust has been linked to elevated levels of Hg, Se, and Pb in North American soils (Garrison et al. 2003). The number of asthma cases in the United States more than doubled between 1980 and 2000, and asthma rates have also increased in the Caribbean (Brevik 2013a). Airborne dust from Africa has been tentatively linked to increased asthma in North America (Monteil 2008).

Soil Pathogens Although most organisms found in soil are not harmful to humans, soil does serve as a home for many pathogenic organisms. Bacteria are the most abundant type of organism in soil, and they are found in every soil on Earth. Most fungi are saprophytes that absorb nutrients by aiding in the decomposition of dead organisms, but approximately 300 soil fungi species out of the more than 100,000 total fungi species are known to cause disease in humans (Bultman et al. 2005) (Figure 3). For example, the soil fungus Exserohilium rostratum was responsible for the 2012 fungal meningitis outbreak in the United States (Brevik & Burgess 2013a). Protozoa are single-celled eukaryotic organisms. Most protozoa found in soil feed on bacteria and algae, but some cause human parasitic diseases such as diarrhea and amoebic dysentery (Brevik 2013a). Helminths are parasites that may inhabit the human intestines, lymph system, or other tissues. Diseases caused by helminths require a non-animal development site or reservoir for transmission, and the soil is a common development site. Billions of people are infected by helminths worldwide each year, with an estimated 130,000 deaths annually. Helminth infections generally occur through ingestion or skin penetration, and in most cases involve infection of the intestines (Bultman et al. 2005). The soil is not a natural reservoir for viruses, but viruses are known to survive in soil. Pathogenic viruses are usually introduced into soil through human septic or sewage waste. Viruses that cause conjunctivitis, gastroenteritis, hepatitis, polio, aseptic meningitis, or smallpox have all been found in soil (Hamilton et al. 2007; Bultman et al. 2005).

Guideline value; 0.02 mg/l (20 µg/l) Occurrence; Concentrations in groundwater less than 0.001 µg/l; concentrations in surface water less than 0.2 µg/l; concentrations in drinking-water appear to be less than 5 µg/l .

Tolerable daily intake (TDI) 6 µg/kg body weight, based on a NOAEL of 6.0 mg/kg body weight per day for decreased body weight gain and reduced food and water intake in a 90-day study in which rats were administered potassium antimony tartrate in drinking-water, using an uncertainty factor of 1000 (100 for interspecies and intraspecies variation, 10 for the short duration of the study).

Hi Henning Lebrenz

View papper:

valuable discussion

Hello, all depends which exact elements are you interested to analyse and which accuracy you need.

Also remember ICP/MS is destructive.

Here some advantages of all equipments.

The strengths of INAA are:

a. Can analyze a large number of elements simultaneously

b. Very low detection limits for many elements

c. Small sample sizes (1—200 mg)

d. No chemical preparation

e. Non-destructive. The material is available for other analytical techniques.

There are very few limitations. The major limitation is the number of elements that can be analyzed by this technique. Several elements of geological interest, such as Nb, Y and some transition metals, are better determined by other analytical methods. For example, more precise Rb, Sr, Y, Nb, and Zr concentrations can be obtained by x-ray fluorescence (XRF). In fact, INAA and XRF are complimentary techniques and rock and mineral chemistries are often determined using both INAA and XRF. Also, because there is no chemical pre-separation, the sensitivity of the method is dependent upon the sample matrix. For example, detection limits for all elements are lower in tree ring samples than in rock samples.

For ICP/MS all advantages already listed in previous answer.

Only points d,e sometimes point c not available at ICP/MS technique.

Also I am disagree with commercial point - Multi-element method for concurrent determination of virtually all elements of the periodic table.

Practically environmental samples contain all elements in very different concentrations and detection of all elements of periodic system by one analysis In pg/L range impossible, also a lot of problems with detection of some elements with major isotope.

Hope this info will help you.

Good luck!

My Forest and many or all that I know about do not or would not intentionally justify using an invasive exotic plant any more. The change over started to occur about 2 decades ago. We even went so far to discuss and go against state BMPs when the published seed mix included grasses considered invasive like Bahia grass, Serecea lespedeza, tall fescue, etc. In our seed mixes, we have continued to allow for some desired non-native ANNUALs that typically last a year as quick cover, as some of our native grasses are slow to germinate. It’s very expensive to grow plugs and then transplant. Any new forest plans and most if not all written in last 10-20 years are going to prevent use of non-native invasives. Where loblolly pine trees were planted off-site decades ago, they have been or are still being removed to make way for native species. Our timber, road, fire control activities require equipment to be washed to avoid inadvertent spread of invasives. But as mentioned, some areas are very erosive, so rapid cover annuals in the mix like brown top millet are still used as well as weed free straw when needed. Many of the Native seeds established, even sparingly at first, respond well to prescribed fire, a management tool used with some frequency within extensive portions of the SC National Forests. Invasive plants are actively treated, but as suggested, the presence of undesired persistant or invasives such as Bahia grass, Serecea lespedeza, tall fescue and others along roads and old gully treatments and home sites within a mixed ownership landscape creates long term issue where continuing identification and treatments to invasives are expected. Unfortunately, not all agencies, activities, ownerships and nurseries are on the same page as USFS, but I expect and believe the educational emphasis and discussions of concern may have them headed in the right direction through time, but certainly not fast enough. As suggested, unless this issue were to be legislated, it Is voluntary to all but the most conservation oriented. My concern with the pure legislation route would be many of the native grasses that we were familiar with were slow to establish and grow. A few species did respond well such as switchgrass and partridge pea, but erosion control needs a reasonable amount of cover, and using too much seed of annuals or excessive mulch also is bad due to competition, etc.

Please see my papers:

and

Good information

Yes, you can measure with FAAS, but it is depend with the number of factor, metal concentration in your sample, which metal you need to analyse, what is the LOD you need etc.

Dear colleague

Thanks for pointing out the page, but I already knew it.

As explained, this question is part of a questionnaire directed to knowledge about inventory methods. That is, a more specific content within this theme.

If you have already used LCA in any study you could contribute your knowledge by answering it. Just go to the link above.

Again, thank you for your participation.

Dear Me Essam E K Ahmed :

Please describe your request more precisely and thoroughly.

Models of any kind are either research/simulation models or predictive/forecast models or hybrid. GCM's have only a small amount of predictive value, depending in part on what variables they are used to forecast and for how long into the future. On the other hand, I think we need to learn to use the valuable information they give us about plausibility of future scenarios. Single predictive runs, and especially ensemble predictive runs, can tell us that a period of increased precipitation in one region may be very plausible, or very implausible, or somewhere in between. Such "predictions" are more reliable than a literal reading of one forecast for a single variable, a single year, and a single site, which should almost never be taken literally.

As a society, we need to have contingency plans for all plausible futures. This may sound undesirable difficult, but it is reality. We plan baby clothing before we know the gender of a child; we plan how to spend a salary even before we are offered the job; we invest in international moves before we have a visa. So the wise citizens of Tabriz are well advised to keep both their umbrellas and their cricket sets. I'd be nervous to give up either one in our changeable climate system.

If you use raster maps, also Idrisi (now called TerrSets) cal calculates some fragmentation indexes.

Dear also find one another important attachment.

Dear Ruggiero,

we are also working on that subject, mainly on case studies, including cradle-to-cradle, life cycle optimisation, and cleaner production approaches. One of the publications is that one:

I have tested this method for methanol production from PEC reduction of CO2. provided the quantity of of the methanol is high enough to an extent it is measurable by this method, then its good to follow. But from my experience, methanol produced from CO2 reduction was not detectable by this method..but GC does.

All significant car manufacturers publish their cars LCAs: https://www.audi.com/content/dam/com/EN/corporate-responsibility/product/audi_a6_life_cycle_assessment.pdf

Also, you can find the abundance of scientific literature of car LCAs on google scholar: http://papers.sae.org/971166/

In the case of car manufacturing, CO2 causes the global warming impact and not other GHGs. You look up the used LCA model and can calculate the CO2 if it is not explicitly presented in the study.

You can get the data from scratch as well. Draw the process map. Look up steel production, transportation, manufacturing CO2 releases from available databases (EPA, EU stat) and add together. It takes time.

Please find my study about a simpler product (torrefied wood). I built the emissions from bottom up by using EPA databases, the process map and calculated mass/energy balances:

The water, energy and food (WEF) nexus means that the three sectors — water security, energy security and food security — are inextricably linked and that actions in one area more often than not have impacts in one or both of the others.

FAO has developed an approach to assess and manage the water-energy-food nexus to inform decision-making processes and to guide the development of “Nexus-sensitive” policies, supporting countries in designing and implementing them in a participatory manner...

Thanks Mr.Peter for valuable information

XRF is not better than normal conventional element analysis but much faster and enables you to analyze the elemental range from Na to the  transuranic elements. The d-block transition elements work very well with detection limits in the lower ppm range (based on dry matter).

How reliable are the results from XRF: The answer is quite simple, it depends very much on Your sample prep, a general answer is not possible. To have a start point I would recommend to start  with freeze-dried samples as loose powder and a fundamental parameter based XRF quantification. You could give some of Your samples to an XRF lab to test it if it fits Your needs, analyses are cheap.

This paper might be helpful

Johansen K, Tiede D,Blaschke T, Arroyo LA,Phinn S. 2011. Automatic geographic object based mapping of streambed and riparian zone extent from LiDAR data in a temperate rural urban environment, Australia. Remote Sensing 3: 1139–1156.

I have experience in the input-output model based hybrid LCA. I think any model supports LCA or LCI can be a 'hybrid'. Do you want to classify these methods or choose the best one for your purpose?

 This paper "Hydraulic-habitat modelling for setting environmental river flow needs for salmonids" by Dunbar, Alfredesn and Harby in Fisheries Management and Ecology Volume 19, Issue 6,  December 2012,  Pages 500–517 also concurs with your view that the application of these models is infrequent.

I agree with the views of Dr Hansen above as to why such methods are employed relatively infrequently.  

The Environmental Flow Indicator (EFI) plays a crucial role in the management of water resources in England and Wales.  EFIs  are used to assess where changes to the flow regime caused by abstractions or the construction of infrastructure may start to cause an undesirable effect on river habitats and species.  Compliance or non-compliance with the EFI to flag up where changes to the hydrological regime may be contributing to failure to achieve Good Ecological Status under the Water Framework Directive, and to guide further ecological investigations where they are necessary (Klaar et al., 2014). The EFI is calculated within the Resource Assessment and Management (RAM) framework.

The RAM framework incorporates a variable sensitivity of surface water bodies to flow change, consisting of simplified UK Technical Advisory Group (UKTAG) flow standards, using physical typologies that underlie reference condition classification models for macroinvertebrate fish, and macrophytes (Dunbar et al., 2004; Hall, 2008).  Perceived varying sensitivity of different Biological Quality Elements (BQEs) to flow change is summarized as one of three overall Abstraction Sensitivity Bands (ASBs). This allows more abstraction and changes to the hydrological regime in sub-catchments considered to be less sensitive to flow change (typically low gradient, clay dominated catchments, termed ‘ASB1’ waterbodies) than those considered to be more sensitive to flow change (e.g., high gradient and chalk geology headwaters; ‘ASB3’ waterbodies) (Klaar et al., 2014).

So to answer your question in England and Wales a fairly simple method is generally used based on how far the modified flow duration curve is from the naturalised one see here for more details:http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20140328104910/http://cdn.environment-agency.gov.uk/LIT_7935_811630.pdf

References

Dunbar, M.J., Acreman, M., Kirk, S. (2004) Environmental flow setting in England and Wales: Strategies for managing abstraction in catchments. Water and Environment Journal 2004, 18:5–10.

Hall. J. (2008) The development of RAM 4 abstraction sensitivity bands. Internal report, Environment Agency, Bristol, 2008.

Klaar, M.J., Dunbar, M.J., Warren, M. and Soley, R. (2014) Developing hydro-ecological models to inform environmental flow standards: A case study from England, WIREs Water 2014, 1:207–217. doi: 10.1002/wat2.1012

it exist the formulas from landsat using zenithal angle and insolation angle to retrieve the values of AIR temperature. it's very usefull and i will send you letter.

Where can  I get the blank image of Wilcox diagram. Please put a link or the image of diagram.

I would prefer taking samples after finishing the experiments, to measure both bulk and particle Densities, and then calculate the porosity. However, logical prediction is described by Louadj.

Why you do not try both ways and see, (If you lost the columns try in new once?

Good luck

I agree with Teresa Rocío Millán 

use medusa. its simple and easy, but not precise

Dear Ata,

Thanks for your kind response. Actually the II edition of the Blue Book - WHO guidelines you wrote about - does not provide any useful indication for what I looked for.

However, I found a way to classify countries according to their health-care waste management practices. I wrote about it in the following literature review:

Best regards,

Marco

@Barry --

   I must admit to not knowing enough about Weldon -- but I'm never impressed by academic status. 

   Sort of an "honor among thieves" thing for me!  Anyone philosophizing on the nature or justness of war immediately after one of (if not the) most destructive wars in history....and having played a role.....the personal and organizational politics are too great.  Not a shot at Weldon -- I often find myself checking myself on biases and poor perceptions that are in-bred, deeply rooted. 

Yes. Environmental harm fees/taxes should be strictly imposed so that industries/companies would make an effort to reduce the wastes they produce. They become more accountable to the their contribution to alarming rate of environmental pollution. The money/tax collected should be used for rehabilitation and conservation projects as to mitigate the effects of climate change

Pure water does not contain any ions and is neutral. However, once the pure water is exposed to air, its purity will drop rapidly. Even if only a few minutes, pH will be a significant decline. This is because the carbon dioxide in the air reacts with water to produce carbonic acid.

The hydrogen ion (H +) released by carbonic acid ionization decreases the pH of the water. The reaction is very rapid and the resistivity of pure water exposed to air drops from 18.2 MΩ · cm to 4 MΩ · cm in 60 minutes. Therefore, we advocate to use pure water as soon as possible, rather than storage.

The US Geological Survey sells standard reference samples (SRS) nutrients spiked into Colorado mountain stream water, which might be somewhat close to your glacial/river water matrix. It's a round-robin most probable value sample. Spike levels vary but mostly availabe in the 0.1 to 0.2 mg/L ammonia as NH3-N range in their present catalog. Samples are $48/ea. https://bqs.usgs.gov/srs/  

You can try the EPA method (EPA 9200.1-86), which relies solely on a Glycine (0.4M) solution at pH 1.5... I attach the PDF of the procedure.

What are the expected concentrations? At leastfor some of the elements, neutron activation will provide good results at low trace levels. ICP methods have low detection limits but need chemical treatment, so you will have to consider contaminations by the chemicals you use. EDX/XRF might not provide the detection limits you need. AAS is quite an effort for so many elements.

See if this paper help: Combining spectral and spatial information to map canopy damage from selective logging and forest fires. Carlos M. Souza Jr., Dar A. Roberts, Mark A. Cochrane

Hi Lazarus,

Please see: Austral Ecology (2010) 35, 374–391 and An Overview of Vegetation Models for Climate Change Impacts, US Forest Service, both online.

I hope this helps!

Andrew :-)

Dear Lau Chew

As Prof. Yuri said please follow the equation above.

Best Regards

i hope you will find these two texts very helpful

1. Activated carbon surfaces in Environmental Remediation by Teresa Bandosz

2. Microbial biosorption of metals by Pavel Kotbra et al

please see attached pdf files

water treatment techniques such as ferric or alum coagulation, granular/micro-/ultra- filtration, aeration, oxidation (i.e., permanganate, ultraviolet/hydrogen peroxide), and disinfection (i.e., ozonation, chlorine dioxide, chlorination, and chloramination) were mostly ineffective in removing PFASs. However, anion exchange and granular activated carbon treatment preferably removed longer-chain PFASs and the PFSAs compared to the PFCAs, and reverse osmosis demonstrated significant removal for all the PFASs, including the smallest PFAS, perfluorobutanoic acid.

Try calculating Emission Factors in the category Fugitive Dust from paved or unpaved road. Check more info. From USA EPA at https://www3.epa.gov/ttnchie1/ap42/ch13/related/c13s02.html

USE NaHCO3

The only significant way to demonstrate that a transformation product (TP) derive from a specific parent compound is the use of labelled parent compound. But this is expensive and unpractical, becuase there are few commercially available labelled compounds. So the most of the degradation pathways are inductive and founded on the knowledge of the chemical reactivity

In Germany the analysis is often done with Headspace-GC-MS according to DIN 38407-43. Extraction with pentane and analysis with GC-FID according to DIN 38 407-9-2 or ISO 11423-2 is an alternative as well as purge&trap methods according to E DIN EN ISO 15680 (very sensitive!).

In most cases the landfill leachate samples are liquids with a high percentage of water. Therefore You can perform also a simple liquid-liquid extraction with phase separation between water and n-hexane.