Earth - Science topic

Dr James Des Lauriers thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Dr Gaurav H Tandon thank you for your contribution to the discussion

The importance of energy traveling on the surface of the Earth and the absorption of solar energy by the Earth's atmosphere lies in their critical roles in maintaining the planet's climate, supporting life, and driving various Earth processes. Here's why these phenomena are significant:

In summary, the interaction between solar energy, the Earth's surface, and the atmosphere is essential for sustaining life, driving Earth's climate and weather systems, supporting ecosystems, and regulating temperature and environmental conditions on our planet. Understanding and managing these processes are vital for maintaining a habitable and balanced environment.

Dr Marco Grassi thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Water at the surface of the ocean, rivers, and lakes can become water vapor and move into the atmosphere with a little added energy from the Sun through a process called evaporation. Evaporation the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas from oceans, seas, and other bodies of water (lakes, rivers, streams) provides nearly 90% of the moisture in our atmosphere. Most of the remaining 10% found in the atmosphere is released by plants through transpiration. Evaporation and transpiration transform liquid water into vapor, which ascends into the atmosphere due to rising air currents. Cooler temperatures aloft allow the vapor to condense into clouds. The water and ice that make up clouds travels into the sky within air as water vapor, the gas form of water. Water vapor gets into air mainly by evaporation some of the liquid water from the ocean, lakes, and rivers turns into water vapor and travels in the air. Volcanoes released gases H2O (water) as steam, carbon dixoide (CO2), and ammonia (NH3). Carbon dioxide dissolved in seawater. The ocean formed from the escape of water vapor and other gases from the molten rocks of the Earth to the atmosphere surrounding the cooling planet. After the Earth's surface had cooled to a temperature below the boiling point of water, rain began to fall—and continued to fall for centuries. About 90 percent of water in the atmosphere is produced by evaporation from water bodies, while the other 10 percent comes from transpiration from plants. There is always water in the atmosphere. Far from the Sun, where temperatures are low, water formed icy objects such as comets, while closer to the Sun water reacted with rocky materials to form hydrated minerals. It's thought that the mostly likely way that planet Earth inherited its water was from asteroids and comets crashing into it. In the atmosphere, water exists as a gas (water vapor from evaporation), as a liquid (droplets of rain and liquid water that coats solid particles), and as a solid (snow and ice). Its structure depends on its state. Water in the gas phase has a bent structure with an H-O-H angle of 104.5 degrees. Earth's atmosphere is composed of about 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0.9 percent argon, and 0.1 percent other gases. Trace amounts of carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and neon are some of the other gases that make up the remaining 0.1 percent. The atmosphere is the superhighway in the sky that moves water everywhere over the Earth. Water at the Earth's surface evaporates into water vapor, then rises up into the sky to become part of a cloud which will float off with the winds, eventually releasing water back to Earth as precipitation.

Earth's atmosphere keeps much of the Sun's energy from escaping into space. This process, called the greenhouse effect, keeps the planet warm enough for life to exist. The atmosphere allows about half of the Sun's heat energy (50%) to reach Earth's surface. This is the outermost layer of the atmosphere. It extends from about 375 miles (600 km) to 6,200 miles (10,000 km) above the earth. In this layer, atoms and molecules escape into space and satellites orbit the earth. The general thermal energy of the atmospheric gas ultimately comes from, e.g., absorbed stellar radiation or from heat leaking out of the interior of the planet. No thermal escape mechanisms. Here, a “collision process” energizes gas species above the escape barrier. The energy that Earth receives from sunlight is balanced by an equal amount of energy radiating into space. The energy escapes in the form of thermal infrared radiation: like the energy you feel radiating from a heat lamp. Due to thermal mechanisms, a lighter molecule is more likely to escape from the atmosphere because of its higher average speed at a given temperature. For example, hydrogen escapes more easily than carbon dioxide. This has numerous applications in astrophysical and planetary science.Barring a large asteroid impact that can inject large swaths of the atmosphere into space, the only gases that regularly escape Earth's atmosphere today are hydrogen and helium, the lightest elements in the universe. There are several ways hydrogen and helium molecules can wind up on a one-way mission to space.Atmospheric radiation is the flow of electromagnetic energy between the sun and the Earth's surface as it is influenced by clouds, aerosols, and gases in the Earth's atmosphere. It includes both solar radiation (sunlight) and long-wave (thermal) radiation. The greenhouse effect causes some of this energy to be waylaid in the atmosphere, absorbed and released by greenhouse gases. Without the greenhouse effect, Earth's temperature would be below freezing. It is, in part, a natural process. Process of warming of planet's surface and its lower atmosphere by the absorption of infrared radiations of long wavelength given out from the surface of a planet is known as green house effect. The greenhouse effect is the way in which heat is trapped close to Earth's surface by “greenhouse gases.” These heat-trapping gases can be thought of as a blanket wrapped around Earth, keeping the planet toastier than it would be without them. The atmosphere of the earth is heated by the process of convection. In cases of liquids and gases, the transfer of heat takes place through convection. It is a process by which heat travels through water, gas, air, or other liquids. The greenhouse effect happens when certain gases known as greenhouse gases collect in Earth's atmosphere. These gases, which occur naturally in the atmosphere, include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxide, and fluorinated gases sometimes known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Conduction is a slow process of heat transfer as regards warming of the atmosphere. Since air is a very poor conductor of heat, the conduction process affects only the lowermost layers of air closest to the earth's surface.

Rising temperatures increase the risk of irreversible loss of marine and coastal ecosystems. Today, widespread changes have been observed, including damage to coral reefs and mangroves that support ocean life, and migration of species to higher latitudes and altitudes where the water could be cooler. Climate change is causing some serious changes in oceans, including temperature increase, sea level rise, and acidification. Oceans are becoming more acidic as they absorb more CO2 from the atmosphere, and concurrently oxygen levels are decreasing. When surface waters are warmer, they don't mix as well with deep waters. By reducing Deep Sea “ventilation”, warming reduces the already low oxygen content, which naturally affects “intermediate” waters over wide regions of the tropical ocean.The ocean is a significant influence on Earth's weather and climate. The ocean covers 70% of the global surface. This great reservoir continuously exchanges heat, moisture, and carbon with the atmosphere, driving our weather patterns and influencing the slow, subtle changes in our climate. For eons, the world's oceans have been sucking carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere and releasing it again in a steady inhale and exhale. The ocean takes up carbon dioxide through photosynthesis by plant-like organisms, as well as by simple chemistry: carbon dioxide dissolves in water. The world's oceans already function as an enormous carbon sink, absorbing about one quarter of humanity's CO2 emissions. The new projects are pledging that they can amplify that ability, seemingly a godsend in a world plagued by runaway emissions, and with little time left to act.

Yes, this cycling of water is intimately linked with energy exchanges among the atmosphere, ocean, and land that determine the Earth's climate and cause much of natural climate variability. The impacts of climate change and variability on the quality of human life occur primarily through changes in the water cycle.Additionally, an increase in water evaporation affects another part of the water cycle, precipitation. Warmer air can hold more water vapor which can lead to stronger, more intense storms. These storms can cause massive floods in various climates, which greatly shift the natural systems of the affected areas.All life on Earth needs water. It's so important to us that when we're searching for life on other planets, the first thing we look for is liquid water. But water isn't always a liquid on Earth; it changes to a gas and solid as part of the water cycle. It's a good job this happens, or we wouldn't have any fresh water. Climate change impacts the water cycle by influencing when, where, and how much precipitation falls. It also leads to more severe weather events over time.Through enhanced global warming via increasing levels of carbon in the atmosphere the impact has been to super-charge both cycles. As, we have seen greater evaporation in parts of the world that creates heavier rainfall in some areas and deeper droughts in others. The water cycle is highly important because it ensures that all the living organisms will be given access to the water and regulates weather patterns on Earth (our planet). If water would not naturally recycle itself, we would run out of clean water, which is essential for life. Climate change is exacerbating both water scarcity and water-related hazards (such as floods and droughts), as rising temperatures disrupt precipitation patterns and the entire water cycle. Large bodies of water such as oceans, seas, and large lakes affect the climate of an area. Water heats and cools more slowly than land. Therefore, in the summer, the coastal regions will stay cooler and in winter warmer. A more moderate climate with a smaller temperature range is created. Climate change impacts the water cycle by influencing when, where, and how much precipitation falls. It also leads to more severe weather events over time.

That is a very interesting question with an answer from a Statistical Mechanics (SM) point of view, Dear Prof. Rk Naresh

The answer we get from SM is that energy is conserved, no matter what we do.

In order to show that using a math rigorous formalism, we have to use the so called microcanonical ensemble. Then, we have to understand what means microstates & macrostates. Finally be ought to be able to elaborate the First Principle of Thermodynamics in terms of the quantum microscopic states, to find out where the energy of a closed system goes.

The classical reference is Prof. F. Reif book:

Kind Regards.

Extremophiles are group of microorganisms that possess ability to tolerate and live under the extremes of physico-chemical, geological and nutritional conditions. Extreme environments include the geographical poles, very arid deserts, volcanoes, deep ocean trenches, upper atmosphere, outer space, and the environments of every planet in the Solar System except the Earth. The World Ocean is the largest existing ecosystem on our planet. Covering over 71% of the Earth's surface, it's a source of livelihood for over 3 billion people. Marine waters cover more than 70% of the surface of the Earth and account for more than 97% of Earth's water supply and 90% of habitable space on Earth. Seawater has an average salinity of 35 parts per thousand of water. Actual salinity varies among different marine ecosystems. Freshwater ecosystems cover less than 1% of Earth's surface, yet are home to at least 10% of Earth's species. The aquatic biome is the largest of all the biomes, covering about 75 percent of Earth's surface. This biome is usually divided into two categories: freshwater and marine. The ocean is a huge body of saltwater that covers about 71 percent of Earth's surface. The planet has one global ocean, though oceanographers and the countries of the world have traditionally divided it into four distinct regions: the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic oceans.Forest ecosystem: being a very large area of forest, it can support a huge life and ecosystem of different species of plants and animals. It covers up to 70% of the total ecosystem. Biosphere is the sum of all and hence regarded as the largest ecosystem of the earth. Biosphere is the regions of the surface, atmosphere, and hydrosphere of the earth (or analogous parts of other planets) occupied by living organisms. The most extreme extremophile that is known at the moment is the Deinococcus radiodurans. This microbe can survive extreme cold, drought, thin air and acid. It has even been found on the walls inside nuclear reactors, where the radioactivity would be instantly fatal for humans. These include viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and microbial metabolites. Original photographs of all the main groups of microorganisms are presented using light and electron microscopy. Major classes of extreme environments encompass acidic (pH < 5), alkaline (pH > 9), hypersaline (salinity > 35‰), pressurized (> 0.1 MPa), hot (> 40°C), cold (<5°C), dry (aw < 0.80), and high-radiation environments.

Does Earth emit energy back into the atmosphere? I answer in the affirmative, as pointed out by Gaurav H Tandon.

Dr Atul Kumar Kuthiala thank you for your contribution to the discussion

A planet's size and mass determines its gravitational pull. A planet's mass and size determines how strong its gravitational pull is. Models can help us experiment with the motions of objects in space, which are determined by the gravitational pull between them. On the Moon, the gravitational field strength is lower than on the Earth. Gravitational field strength is related to the mass and radius. It is proportional to the mass of a planet, but inversely proportional to the square radius of a planet. Gravitational field strength determines the weight of an object.The force of gravity on different planets is different, depending on their mass and radius. A gravitational field is where a mass experiences a force. All matter has a gravitational field that attracts other objects. The more mass an object has, the greater its gravitational field will be. For example, the Earth has a greater gravitational field than the Moon because it has a much greater mass than the Moon. The amount of gravitational potential energy an object has depends on its height and mass. The heavier the object and the higher it is above the ground, the more gravitational potential energy it holds. Gravitational potential energy increases as weight and height increases. Mass is the measure of an object's matter. The greater an object's mass, the greater its gravitational force. The earth has a strong attracting force for objects with smaller mass, and the sun has an attracting force on the earth and other planets in our solar system. Heavier things have a greater gravitational force and heavier things have a lower acceleration. It turns out that these two effects exactly cancel to make falling objects have the same acceleration regardless of mass. Because the downward force on an object is equal to its mass multiplied by g, heavier objects have a greater downward force. Heavier objects, however, also have more inertia, which means they resist moving more than lighter objects do, and so heaver objects need more force to get them going at the same rate. There are two things that determine the gravitational force, mass and distance. On the larger planet, you would be farther away from the center of mass of the planet, so the gravitational force would be less at the surface. The gravity on the surface of the smaller planet would be greater. Anything that has mass also has gravity. Objects with more mass have more gravity. Gravity also gets weaker with distance. So, the closer objects are to each other, the stronger their gravitational pull is. That's because the planets weigh different amounts, and therefore the force of gravity is different from planet to planet. For example, if you weigh 100 pounds on Earth, you would weigh only 38 pounds on Mercury. That's because Mercury weighs less than Earth, and therefore its gravity would pull less on your body. The gravity on Jupiter is greater than the gravity on Earth because Jupiter is more massive. Although Jupiter is a great deal larger in size, its surface gravity is just 2.4 times that of the surface gravity of Earth. This is because Jupiter is mostly made up of gases.

The Sun warms the planet, drives the hydrologic cycle, and makes life on Earth possible. Solar radiation is the fundamental energy driving our climate system, and nearly all climatic and biologic processes on Earth are dependent on solar input. Energy from the sun is essential for many processes on Earth including warming of the surface, evaporation, photosynthesis and atmospheric circulation.Solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass, and geothermal power can provide energy without the planet-warming effects of fossil fuels. In any discussion about climate change, renewable energy usually tops the list of changes the world can implement to stave off the worst effects of rising temperatures. Primary energy sources take many forms, including nuclear energy, fossil energy like oil, coal and natural gas -- and renewable sources like wind, solar, geothermal and hydropower. The source of energy of the sun or stars is the nuclear fusion of light nuclei such as hydrogen present in their inner part at a very high temperature and a high pressure. This results the formation of helium nucleus with a release of tremendous amount of energy. Harnessing power from the wind is one of the cleanest and most sustainable ways to generate electricity as it produces no toxic pollution or global warming emissions. Wind is also abundant, inexhaustible, and affordable, which makes it a viable and large-scale alternative to fossil fuels. Solar radiation, or energy produced by the Sun, is the primary energy source for most processes in the Earth system and drives Earth's energy budget.

Solar energy is the most abundant of all energy resources and can even be harnessed in cloudy weather. The rate at which solar energy is intercepted by the Earth is about 10,000 times greater than the rate at which humankind consumes energy. Sunlight is one of our planets most abundant and freely available energy resources. The amount of solar energy that reaches the earth's surface in one hour is more than the planet's total energy requirements for a whole year.. One of the most important sources of energy is the sun. The energy of the sun is the original source of most of the energy found on earth. We get solar heat energy from the sun, and sunlight can also be used to produce electricity from solar cells.Electrical energy is the most convenient form of energy for most human uses. Electrical energy is easy use and move from one location to another, but it is almost impossible to store in any large quantity. It can be used for running computers and most appliances, home heating, and even transportation. Electrical energy is one of the most commonly used forms of energy in the world. It can be easily converted into any other energy form and can be safely and efficiently transported over long distances. As a result, it is used in our daily lives more than any other energy source. Environmental and economic benefits of using renewable energy include: Generating energy that produces no greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels and reduces some types of air pollution. Diversifying energy supply and reducing dependence on imported fuels. If we could replace fossil fuels with abundant renewable energy, we would cut energy prices, reduce emissions and lower the future risks of climate change, including the impact on food production. Despite the negative impact on wildlife, renewable energy still positively impacts the climate and the air. It fosters a stronger ecosystem because it is clean. The production of this electricity also has no impact on the environment. Unlike fossil fuels, renewable energy creation doesn't harm the ecosystem. Solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass, and geothermal power can provide energy without the planet-warming effects of fossil fuels. In any discussion about climate change, renewable energy usually tops the list of changes the world can implement to stave off the worst effects of rising temperatures.

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are targets for global development that were adopted in 2015. All countries have agreed to work towards achieving them by 2030.

Our SDG Tracker presents data across all available indicators from the Our World in Data database, using official statistics from the UN and other international organizations. This free, open-access information tracks global progress towards the SDGs and allows people worldwide to hold their governments accountable for achieving the agreed goals.

Data is available for many indicators, but there are still gaps...

We can apply these rules to the giant planets to explain their massive atmospheres. One rule, for example, notes that bigger planets have stronger gravity, so they are better able to keep gas from drifting away into space. The temperature of an ideal monatomic gas is related to the average kinetic energy of its atoms. Typically, the more massive the planet, the more massive the atmosphere it can acquire and maintain. This is important because the mass of a planet's atmosphere will directly influence its climate. With the exception of Mercury, which has a very thin atmosphere, the high- percentage objects are the largest bodies in the solar system. The planet Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are sometimes called the Gas Giants because so much of the mass of these planets consists of a gaseous atmosphere. Planets condense from the gas and dust left over after the birth of their parent star. Larger planets, such as gas giants, then pull more gas from their surroundings into thick atmospheres, as seen in this artist's impression of a forming gas giant in the disk around the star HD 100546. Aside from the presence of component gases brought out by volcanic activity, a planet must have substantial mass to cause gravitational attraction that would keep the gases from dissipating into space. But that only adresses the issue of keeping the gases contained. That critical size, according to Arnscheidt and the other authors of the study, is 2.7 percent the mass of Earth. They say that any smaller than that, and the planet simply won't be able to hold onto its atmosphere and water long enough for life to appear. Because the jovian planets are massive and cold, they have thick atmospheres of hydrogen and helium. The terrestrial planets are small in mass and warm, so they have thin atmospheres made of heavier molecules like carbon dioxide or nitrogen. A large planet such as Jupiter has enough gravity to hold on to most of its hydrogen and helium, which is why these elements dominate the atmospheres of gas giants. But the gravity of Earth isn't strong enough, so Earth's early atmosphere of helium and free hydrogen evaporated into space.Calculating the gravity at Earth's surface using the average radius of Earth (6,371 kilometres (3,959 mi)), the experimentally determined value of the gravitational constant, and the Earth mass of 5.9722 ×1024 kg gives an acceleration of 9.8203 m/s2, slightly greater than the standard gravity of 9.80665 m/s2. Gravity is measured as how fast objects accelerate towards each other. The average gravitational pull of the Earth is 9.8 meters per second squared (m/s2). Anything with mass also has gravity. The more mass something has (Earth has a mass of 6.6 sextillion tons), the higher the force of gravity that it exerts on the objects around it. The force of gravity also increases or decreases with distance. The closer the objects are, the stronger the force of gravity will be. Throughout space, gravity actually is constant. It is the acceleration due to gravity that changes and that is what we are talking about when we say gravity is 9.81 meters per second squared. It should be noted that the strength of gravity is not a constant - as you get farther from the centre of the Earth, gravity gets weaker. It is not even a constant at the surface, as it varies from ~9.83 at the poles to ~9.78 at the equator. This is why we use the average value of 9.8, or sometimes 9.81. The force due to the upper half of the Earth cancels the force due to the lower half at the center of the Earth. Similarly, any force due to any portion of the Earth at its center will be cancelled by the portion opposite to it. As a result, the gravitational force at the center of anybody will be zero.

Once energy has been absorbed by the Earth system, it is transformed and transferred. Eventually, after multiple transfers, this radiation is emitted back to space, keeping our planet in energy equilibrium. All matter is made of particles, such as atoms and molecules. Earth returns an equal amount of energy back to space by reflecting some incoming light and by radiating heat. Most solar energy is absorbed at the surface, while most heat is radiated back to space by the atmosphere. Energy is transferred between the Earth's surface and the atmosphere in a variety of ways, including radiation, conduction, and convection. Conduction is one of the three main ways that heat energy moves from place to place. The other two ways heat moves around are radiation and convection. As the Sun's energy passes through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed, or taken in, by gases and particles. Some of it is reflected back into space. As a result, not all of the energy coming from the Sun reaches Earth's surface. The Sun's radiation strikes the Earth's surface, thus warming it. As the surface's temperature rises due to conduction, heat energy is released into the atmosphere, forming a bubble of air that is warmer than the surrounding air. This bubble of air rises into the atmosphere. Eventually, the energy that began as Sunshine (short-wave radiation) leaves the planet as Earthshine (light reflected by the Atmosphere and surface back into space) and infrared radiation emitted by all parts of the planet which reaches the top of the Atmosphere. The air-powered generator, known as an “Air-gen,” would offer continuous clean electricity because it uses the energy from humidity, which is always present, rather than depending on the sun or wind.

Yes, it can be possible, and I can give you a solid example that exists in real life and that too, in our solar system. Uranus is about 4 times wider than the Earth, and is 14x the mass. Yet, Uranus has the same gravity as Venus, a meagre 8.87 m/s2. Uranus has about 10% lower gravity than Earth's.Uranus is approximately 4 times the size of Earth and 14.536 times as massive. It is a gas giant, so its density (1.27 g/cm3) is a lot lower than Earth's. This means its surface gravity of 8.69 m/s2, or 0.886 g, which is a bit weaker than on Earth.The gravity of a planet, or other body, is proportional to its mass. The density of the Earth is about 5.51 g/ cm3. A planet with double the volume of the Earth would have to have half the density to have the same mass and hence the same gravity. If Earth's diameter were doubled to about 16,000 miles, the planet's mass would increase eight times, and the force of gravity on the planet would be twice as strong. Life would be: Built and proportioned differently. So if you want a planet with exactly Earth's gravity, your smallest size is about 80% of Earth, or about 10000 km. If you want a similar surface gravity that's a bit less, say 75% Earth's gravity, you can go as small as 60% of Earth's radius, or about 7500 km wide. Therefore, if a planet has same radius as that of earth but double the mass of earth, it will have twice the gravity. But if this planet is also bigger than earth (that is it has a larger radius), it won't be double as larger radius will make its gravity lower. Anything with mass also has gravity. The more mass something has (Earth has a mass of 6.6 sextillion tons), the higher the force of gravity that it exerts on the objects around it. The force of gravity also increases or decreases with distance. The closer the objects are, the stronger the force of gravity will be. The bigger the mass, the stronger the gravity. This is direct and unavoidable. The bigger the size for a given mass, the smaller the gravity, since you are farther from the center of mass. Therefore, the surface gravity of a planet or star with a given mass will be approximately inversely proportional to the square of its radius, and the surface gravity of a planet or star with a given average density will be approximately proportional to its radius.The acceleration of gravity at any given location near or above a planet's surface is often referred to as the gravitational field constant of that planet. Such acceleration values are directly proportional to the planet's mass and inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the planet's center. The trick is lower density. In an extreme case, Uranus is 14.5 times Earth's mass but has 88.6% of Earth's surface gravity. Saturn and Neptune are both much bigger than Earth (95x Earth's mass and 17x Earth's mass) but have only slightly higher gravity (1.065G and 1.14G). The gravity of a planet, or other body, is proportional to its mass. The density of the Earth is about 5.51 g/ cm3. A planet with double the volume of the Earth would have to have half the density to have the same mass and hence the same gravity. Anything that has mass also has gravity. Objects with more mass have more gravity. Gravity also gets weaker with distance. So, the closer objects are to each other, the stronger their gravitational pull is.

Spring Equinox (March 20th or 21st of each year) and Autumn Equinox (September 21st or 22nd)

Energy of fossil fuels, solar radiation, or nuclear fuels, which are all primary, can be converted into other energy forms such as electricity and heat that are more useful to us. All energy that has been subjected to human-made transformation is secondary energy. Primary energy resources are those found in nature. Secondary energy resources are those forms that must be produced by conversion of primary resources. There are only a few different original sources for primary fuels: Earth, the Moon, and the Sun. Energy commodities are either extracted or captured directly from natural resources (and are termed primary) such as crude oil, hard coal, natural gas, or are produced from primary commodities.” “Secondary energy comes from the transformation of primary or secondary energy.” Secondary energy includes liquid fuels (such as gasoline and diesel which are refined oil), electricity, and heat. Final energy: Once we've transported secondary energy to the consumer we have final energy. The primary energy source on the earth's surface is sunlight, which can be harnessed in several ways. Fossil fuels containing coal, oil, and natural gas have been produced through photosynthesis and chemical processes over the years. As the climate warms, Americans are expected to use more energy, mostly electricity, for cooling. This higher demand will also increase the chance of blackouts or other power disruptions. Those sources of energy which can be used in the form they occur naturally are called primary sources of energy. Those sources of energy which are derived from the primary source are called secondary sources of energy. Harnessing energy from primary sources in some cases may be inefficient and inconvenient to transit. Primary energy is the energy contained in raw fuels while secondary energy sources are derived from primary energy. Secondary energy is the energy contained in raw fuels while primary energy sources have been processed. Primary energy sources are the least clean while secondary energy sources are renewable. Primary fuels are those that are directly used to produce heat and secondary fuels are those that are obtained by the chemical processes using primary fuel.

Dr Alexandru Popa thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Please check the surroundings. If the earth around inverter is having many installations with leakage currents the Ground potential itself increases.

Check system Ground/neutral voltage wrt Earth at both locations. This may give hint.

The BRICS platform (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) has indeed jolted the global geopolitical landscape. It has the potential for enormous geopolitical and economic influence. However, it is worth noting that the international order is complex and non-linear.

The concerns regarding the BRICS impact on the global system led by the United States and the Western Europe depends on one's perspective. It is commonly argued that BRICS aims at turning the world into multipolar; hence challenging the USA and the Western world. Others term BRICS related to global governance and cooperation.

The rise of the BRICS system introduces changes to the global order; however, it doesn't necessarily imply an immediate threat to the global system led by the United States and the Western Europe. This development calls for due prudence, adaptability, diplomacy, and collaborative frameworks to navigate the evolving dynamics of global order. There is a need to engage more constructively for the collective benefit of the whole international community and the globe. Hope it serves the purpose.

Dr Gaurav H Tandon thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Renewable energy can play a significant role in reducing climate change, as it is closely linked to the Earth's climate through the greenhouse gas effect and the energy sector's contribution to greenhouse gas emissions.

In summary, renewable energy can reduce climate change by lowering greenhouse gas emissions associated with energy production and consumption. The Earth's climate is closely tied to energy through the emissions of greenhouse gases, and a shift toward renewable energy sources is a critical step in mitigating climate change and creating a more sustainable energy future.

Here are some specific ways in which climate change is affecting the water cycle:

The ocean is also being affected by climate change in a number of ways:

The water cycle and the ocean are essential parts of the Earth's climate system. Climate change is affecting both of these systems in a significant way, and this is having a major impact on the Earth's climate. We need to take action to address climate change in order to protect the water cycle and the ocean, and to ensure a sustainable future for our planet.

Dr Aahed Alhamamy thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Dr Gaurav H Tandon thank you for your contribution to the discussion

The light and heat emitted by the Sun is absorbed by the atmosphere and some part of it is reflected back. This helps to keep the day temperature to an optimum value. During night, the heat trapped by the atmosphere helps the keep the temperature warm which prevents excessive lowering of temperature. The ground routinely starts to cool after the sun sets because it emits more radiation than it gains from the atmosphere. In other words, the temperature of the ground starts to lower because it runs a radiation deficit. Due to a lack of humidity in deserts, the air cannot hold the heat radiated by the sand, which gets heated during the sunny daytime hours. This causes the temperature of deserts to fall rapidly at night. Land cools faster than water. This is because water has a high specific heat capacity i.e. it absorbs a huge amount of heat energy to increase a comparatively small amount of temperature. The specific heat of liquid water is 1 calorie per gram per 1 degree C (cal/g/°C). The specific heat of water is greater than that of dry soil, therefore water both absorbs and releases heat more slowly than land. Water also is fluid, allowing the heat to be mixed to greater depth than on land. Land has lower heat capacity and requires less heat to increase its temperature and water has higher heat capacity and requires more heat to increase its temperature. Hence land heats up and cools down faster than water. It takes less energy to change the temperature of land compared to water. This means that land heats and cools more quickly than water and this difference affects the climate of different areas on Earth. Water is a better conductor of heat than land and so it heats up and also cools down faster than land. Because of its high heat capacity, water can minimize changes in temperature. For instance, the specific heat capacity of water is about five times greater than that of sand. The land cools faster than the sea once the sun goes down, and the slow-cooling water can release heat to nearby land during the night.Not much heat moves into the lower levels of the ground. The heat that the ocean absorbs is mixed with the lower water quickly. That mixing spreads the heat around. At night, while the land cools off quickly, the water at the surface is kept warmer because the water is mixed around with the warmer water underneath.

Dr Emad A Albakistani thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Dr Jorge Morales Pedraza thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Reducing food waste in a hospital setting by improving procurement practices involves several steps and strategies to minimize the amount of food that goes unused. Hospitals can make a significant impact on food waste reduction by implementing some measures like Menu planning, Monitoring, Portion control,supplier engagement, Inventory management, Redstribution of food and Proper Education and Training to all workers concern.

This high humidity means that places on the equator are not the hottest in the world, despite being closest to the sun. The water in the air cools the temperature. In fact Earth's orbit around the sun and its rotation on a tilted axis causes some parts of Earth to receive more solar radiation than others. This uneven heating produces global circulation patterns. As, the abundance of energy reaching the equator produces hot humid air that raises high into the atmosphere. The climate near the equator is usually hot and humid because the sun's rays hit the earth directly at this latitude. The seasons are also less pronounced near the equator because the earth's tilt is not as pronounced. Earth's orbit around the sun and its rotation on a tilted axis causes some parts of Earth to receive more solar radiation than others. This uneven heating produces global circulation patterns. For example, the abundance of energy reaching the equator produces hot humid air that raises high into the atmosphere. Because the Earth is nearly round, the equator receives direct light, and the poles receive slanted light, with a gradation in between. Due to the differential heating of the Earth's surface (unequal heating of all regions), it is always warmer at the equator than at the poles. The rainfall is very heavy and distributed throughout the year. This region also received a sufficient amount of sunshine for all these the humidity level is very high in this region.

The concept of redshift in the context of astronomy refers to the observation that light from distant galaxies is shifted toward longer wavelengths (the red end of the spectrum) as those galaxies move away from us. This phenomenon is a fundamental aspect of our understanding of the expanding universe and is described by Hubble's law, which states that the velocity at which a galaxy is moving away from us is directly proportional to its distance from us.

Redshift does not directly impact life on Earth in the sense of providing stability or influencing biological processes. It is a consequence of the overall expansion of the universe and the movement of galaxies within it. However, redshift and the expansion of the universe have important implications for cosmology and the long-term fate of the universe. Here's how redshift and the expansion of the universe relate to life on Earth:

Khalid Haddouti Merci beaucoup frère!

Dr Michael John Patrick thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Thanks a lot Lyudmil Antonov . Nice use of chatgpt.

There is no path to protecting the climate without dramatically changing how we produce and use electricity: nearly 40% of US CO2 pollution comes from power plants burning fossil fuels. But we can turn things around. Renewable energy minimizes carbon pollution and has a much lower impact on our environment. Transitioning to renewable energy, and reducing reliance on fossil fuels, is one way to help slow down the effects of climate change. While renewable used to be a more expensive option, new clean energy technologies are lowering costs and helping to move economies away from fossil fuels. Renewable means that the energy won't run out and includes solar, hydro and wind energy. Renewable energy sources are incredibly important because they don't emit the greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change. Renewable energy sources are much cleaner than fossil fuels and, in some cases, like solar and wind power; they are totally clean sources of energy. Some resources will practically never run out. These are known as renewable resources. Renewable resources also produce clean energy, meaning less pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, which contribute to climate change. They differ from fossil fuels principally in their diversity, abundance and potential for use anywhere on the planet, but above all in that they produce neither greenhouse gases which cause climate change nor polluting emissions. First of all, it is never going to end, we can use them for a long time and various purposes. Also, they generate energy in a large amount and efficiently. The most important benefit of renewable energy is that it is eco-friendly and don't contribute to environmental pollution. Solar energy is the most abundant of all energy resources and can even be harnessed in cloudy weather. The rate at which solar energy is intercepted by the Earth is about 10,000 times greater than the rate at which humankind consumes energy. Renewable energy in the future is predicted that by 2024, solar capacity in the world will grow by 600 gigawatts (GW), almost double the installed total electricity capacity of Japan. Overall, renewable electricity is predicted to grow by 1 200 GW by 2024, the equivalent of the total electricity capacity of the US. Renewable energy is energy that has been derived from earth's natural resources that are not finite or exhaustible, such as wind and sunlight. Renewable energy is an alternative to the traditional energy that relies on fossil fuels, and it tends to be much less harmful to the environment. India is also embracing the power of renewable energy. It has already announced its aim to reach net zero emissions by 2070. Furthermore, according to the Ministry of Power, the country is likely to meet 62% of its electricity requirements with 500 GW of non-fossil fuel sources by 2030.

Dr Shyam Lakshmanan thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Both the Arctic (North Pole) and the Antarctic (South Pole) are very cold because they get very little direct sunlight. The Sun is always low on the horizon, even in the middle of summer. In winter, the Sun is so far below the horizon that it doesn't come up at all for months at a time. The temperature of the Polar Regions is significantly colder than the equatorial regions because the sun's rays are not directly at the poles. Thus poles receive the slanted rays of the sun. The equator is a crucial imaginary line that separates the north and south hemispheres, and therefore it gets direct sunlight. Polar Regions receive less intense solar radiation than the other parts of Earth because the Sun's energy arrives at an oblique angle, spreading over a larger area, being less concentrated, and also travels a longer distance through the Earth's atmosphere in which it may be absorbed, scattered or reflected. Because they receive less concentrated sunlight, Polar Regions are much colder than other parts of the planet. In the summer, the average temperature at the North Pole is 0° C.Temperature decreases progressively from equator towards the poles because it receives less sunlight. As we go away from equator the temperature decreases and in poles it becomes very little or none. The hottest temperatures on Earth are found near the equator. This is because the sun shines directly on it for more hours during the year than anywhere else. As you move further away from the equator towards the poles, less sun is received during the year and the temperature becomes colder. There is a relationship between latitude and temperature around the world, as temperatures are typically warmer approaching the Equator and cooler approaching the Poles. There is a relationship between latitude and temperature around the world, as temperatures are typically warmer approaching the Equator and cooler approaching the Poles. As we move away from the equator towards the poles, the intensity of sunlight received decreases. This is because the angle of incidence of the sun's rays becomes more inclined as it approaches the poles.

Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and certain synthetic chemicals, trap some of the Earth's outgoing energy, thus retaining heat in the atmosphere. This greenhouse effect traps radiation from the sun and warms the planet's surface. As concentrations of these gases increase, more warming occurs than would happen naturally based on global warming potential. That's because the glass walls of the greenhouse trap the Sun's heat. The greenhouse effect works much the same way on Earth. Gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, trap heat similar to the glass roof of a greenhouse. These heat-trapping gases are greenhouse gases.Greenhouse gases affect our environment by absorbing high amounts of heat from the sun. Greenhouse gases trap heat from the rays of the sun and warm the atmosphere. As the amount of greenhouse gases are increasing in the atmosphere, they are trapping more and more heat. The increased number of factories and automobiles increases the amount of these gases in the atmosphere. The greenhouse gases never let the radiations escape from the earth and increase the surface temperature of the earth. This then leads to global warming. The greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb some of the infrared- heat radiated from earth's surface and direct it back towards Earth (warm). Energy is transferred between the Earth's surface and the atmosphere in a variety of ways, including radiation, conduction, and convection. Conduction is one of the three main ways that heat energy moves from place to place. The other two ways heat moves around are radiation and convection.

The world population has been expanding non-stop for 600 years and is expected to continue growing for at least another 100 years reaching more than 11 billion people by 2100. There are also clear signs that Earth cannot cope with the growth of the human population. We alter carrying capacity when we manipulate resources in a natural environment. If a population exceeds carrying capacity, the ecosystem may become unsuitable for the species to survive. If the population exceeds the carrying capacity for a long period of time, resources may be completely depleted. If the global fertility rate does indeed reach replacement level by the end of the century, then the human population will stabilize between 9 billion and 10 billion. As far as Earth's capacity is concerned, we'll have gone about as far as we can go, but no farther. More people mean an increased demand for food, water, housing, energy, healthcare, transportation, and more. And all that consumption contributes to ecological degradation, increased conflicts, and a higher risk of large-scale disasters like pandemics. There are limits to the life-sustaining resources earth can provide us. In other words, there is a carrying capacity for human life on our planet. Carrying capacity is the maximum number of a species an environment can support indefinitely. Every species has a carrying capacity, even humans. While food and water supply, habitat space, and competition with other species are some of the limiting factors affecting the carrying capacity of a given environment, in human populations, other variables such as sanitation, diseases, and medical care are also at play. The 5 effects of rapid population growth are increased economic growth of a country, growing demand for jobs, lack of housing and schools, lack of infrastructure leading to poor living, and increase in pollution and waste.

Weather systems are simply the movement of warm and cold air across the globe. These movements are known as low-pressure systems and high-pressure systems. High-pressure systems are rotating masses of cool, dry air. High-pressure systems keep moisture from rising into the atmosphere and forming clouds. Energy from the Sun drives climate by heating Earth's surface unevenly. Ice also reflects incoming sunlight, cooling the poles even more. Weather occurs primarily due to air pressure, temperature and moisture differences from one place to another. These differences can occur due to the sun angle at any particular spot, which varies by latitude in the tropics. Convection within the atmosphere can often be observed in our weather. As the sun heats the Earth's surface, the air above it heats up and rises. If conditions allow, this air can continue to rise, cooling as it does so, forming Cumulus clouds. The temperature difference sets the ocean and atmosphere in motion as they work together to distribute heat around the planet. It’s been suggested that atmospheric changes affect circulation and fluid pressure in our joints, increasing inflammation. Some researchers have proposed that as cartilage wears away due to arthritis, the nerves in our bones might become sensitive to pressure changes. Weather refers to day-to-day temperature, precipitation, and other atmospheric conditions, whereas climate is the term for the averaging of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time. When used without qualification, "weather" is generally understood to mean the weather of Earth. The Sun is the primary source of energy for Earth's climate system is the first of seven Essential Principles of Climate Sciences. Principle 1 sets the stage for understanding Earth's climate system and energy balance. The Sun warms the planet, drives the hydrologic cycle, and makes life on Earth possible. Geological records show that there have been a number of large variations in the Earth's climate. These have been caused by many natural factors, including changes in the sun, emissions from volcanoes, variations in Earth's orbit and levels of carbon dioxide (CO2). The sun produces energy from a method called nuclear fusion. During nuclear fusion, the immense pressure and temperature in the sun's core make nuclei distinct from their electrons. Hydrogen nuclei combine and generate one helium atom. During the fusion process, radiant energy is liberated. Sun is the primary source of light for the planet earth.Wind is caused due to uneven heating of Earth's surface. Solar energy causes uneven heating of Earth which results in wind currents. Hence, solar energy obtained from the sun is the primary source of wind energy.

Dr Gaurav H Tandon thank you for your contribution to the discussion

The main atmospheric constituents that prevents infrared radiation from reaching the Earth's surface is water vapour, and, to a lesser extent, Carbon Dioxide. Infrared waves have longer wavelengths than visible light and can pass through dense regions of gas and dust in space with less scattering and absorption. Thus, infrared energy can also reveal objects in the universe that cannot be seen in visible light using optical telescopes.Atmospheric radiation is the flow of electromagnetic energy between the sun and the Earth's surface as it is influenced by clouds, aerosols, and gases in the Earth's atmosphere. It includes both solar radiation and long-wave radiation. Some wavelengths of infrared radiation pass through the Earth's atmosphere, while others are blocked - this gives rise to 'infrared windows' which can be measured from the ground. Ozone layer acts as a shield and does not allow ultraviolet radiation from sun to reach earth. It does not prevent infra-red radiation from sun to reach earth. Long-wavelength radio waves and infrared rays also do not reach the surface. The electromagnetic waves we can generally observe on the ground consist of visible light, which is difficult for the atmosphere to absorb, near-infrared rays, and some electromagnetic waves.It is infrared radiation that produces the warm feeling on our bodies. Most of the solar radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere, and much of what reaches the Earth's surface is radiated back into the atmosphere to become heat energy. Some of this energy is emitted back from the Earth's surface in the form of infrared radiation. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and other trace gases in Earth's atmosphere absorb the longer wavelengths of outgoing infrared radiation from Earth's surface. It varies by type of cloud, thickness, altitude, angle of the sun and likely many other factors. As a generality, clouds block a part of visible, UV and IR light depending on a number of factors especially depth of the cloud. Some of the EM waves are absorbed, some reflected and others pass through. This happens because Earth receives solar radiation only during the daylight hours; but emits infrared radiation during both the day and the night hours. The atmosphere is transparent to visible light, but mostly opaque to infrared. Although ground-based telescopes can see through the atmosphere for part of the infrared wavelength range, much of the infrared range is impossible to see through the Earth's atmosphere, as illustrated below. But at altitudes of 10 km or more, we can see most of the infrared band. In contrast, our atmosphere blocks most ultraviolet light (UV) and all X-rays and gamma-rays from reaching the surface of Earth.Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and other trace gases in Earth's atmosphere absorb the longer wavelengths of outgoing infrared radiation from Earth's surface. The earth's atmosphere absorbs the majority of ultraviolet, X-, and gamma rays, which are all shorter wavelengths than visible light. High energy X- and gamma rays would damage organisms and cells of creatures if they were to reach the earth's surface directly. Fortunately, the atmosphere protects life on earth.

The troposphere is characterized by turbulent mixing and overturning. This turbulence results from uneven heating of the surface and the atmosphere. Temperature decreases with height in this layer. Temperature increases as you gain altitude in the stratosphere and the thermosphere. Temperature decreases as you gain altitude in the troposphere and mesosphere. The relative humidity continuously decreases with height in the troposphere and is close to zero in the stratosphere. Both temperature and wind velocity show variable pattern; they decrease or increase with change in altitude. The troposphere and the stratosphere together account for more than 99% of the total mass of the atmosphere. Mesosphere: The temperature decreases in this layer from an altitude of about 50 km to 85 km. Thermosphere. Located between about 80 and 700 kilometers (50 and 440 miles) above Earth's surface is the thermosphere, whose lowest part contains the ionosphere. In this layer, temperatures increase with altitude due to the very low density of molecules found here. The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height. Unlike the stratosphere beneath it, wherein a temperature inversion is due to the absorption of radiation by ozone, the inversion in the thermosphere occurs due to the extremely low density of its molecules. This is because the Earth's surface is heated by the sun, and the heat is transferred to the surrounding air through conduction and convection. As the air rises, it expands and cools due to the decrease in air pressure. This process is known as adiabatic cooling. Troposphere the temperature of the troposphere is highest near the surface of the Earth and decreases with altitude. On average, the temperature gradient of the troposphere is 6.5o ºC per 1,000 m (3.6o ºF per 1,000 ft.) of altitude. The higher one climbs, the further the temperature sinks, due to the decreasing air pressure. Aside from air pressure, another determining factor in how temperature changes with altitude is the way in which the atmosphere is heated. The atmosphere is mostly warmed by the Earth's surface. The higher one climbs, the further the temperature sinks, due to the decreasing air pressure. Aside from air pressure, another determining factor in how temperature changes with altitude is the way in which the atmosphere is heated. The atmosphere is mostly warmed by the Earth's surface. Higher up in the troposphere, where less heat from the surface warms the air, the temperature drops. Typically, the temperature drops about 6.5° C with each increase in altitude of 1 kilometer (about 3.6° F per 1,000 feet). The rate at which the temperature changes with altitude is called the "lapse rate".

Dr Gaurav H Tandon thank you for your contribution to the discussion

In total approximately 70% of incoming radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and the Earth's surface while around 30% is reflected back to space and does not heat the surface. Some of this incoming radiation is reflected off clouds, some is absorbed by the atmosphere, and some passes through to the Earth's surface. Larger aerosol particles in the atmosphere interact with and absorb some of the radiation, causing the atmosphere to warm.Visible light rays and short infrared radiation pass through the atmosphere of earth. Infrared radiation absorbed by Earth's surface warms the surrounding air. Earth absorbs infrared radiation and converts it to thermal energy. As the surface absorbs heat from the sun, it becomes warmer than the surrounding atmosphere. Of the 340 watts per square meter of solar energy that falls on the Earth, 29% is reflected back into space, primarily by clouds, but also by other bright surfaces and the atmosphere itself. About 23% of incoming energy is absorbed in the atmosphere by atmospheric gases, dust, and other particles. Averaged over an entire year, approximately 342 watts of solar energy fall upon every square meter of Earth. This is a tremendous amount of energy 44 quadrillion (4.4 x 1016) watts of power to be exact. The 70 units of incoming solar radiation make it into Earth's atmosphere. This is equivalent to 240 watts per square meter (70% of 342 W/m2). The atmosphere and clouds absorb 19 units of this incoming solar radiation, leaving 51 units of solar radiation that is absorbed at Earth's surface. Of the remaining 70 percent, 23 percent of incoming solar radiation is absorbed in the atmosphere, either by water vapor, atmospheric particles, dust and ozone. The remaining 47 percent passes through the atmosphere and is absorbed in Earth's land and sea which makes up nearly 71 percent of the entire world.

Wind is caused by uneven heating of the earth's surface by the sun. Because the earth's surface is made up of different types of land and water, the earth absorbs the sun's heat at different rates. One example of this uneven heating is the daily wind cycle. Wind is caused by uneven heating of the earth's surface by the sun. Because the earth's surface is made up of different types of land and water, the earth absorbs the sun's heat at different rates. As of this uneven heating is the daily wind cycle. Wind is caused by uneven heating of the earth's surface by the sun. Because the earth's surface is made up of different types of land and water, the earth absorbs the sun's heat at different rates. One example of this uneven heating is the daily wind cycle.Wind is caused by differences in atmospheric pressure. When a difference in atmospheric pressure exists, air moves from the higher to the lower pressure area, resulting in winds of various speeds blowing in different directions. Wind is caused by differences in atmospheric pressure. When a difference in atmospheric pressure exists, air moves from the higher to the lower pressure area, resulting in winds of various speeds blowing in different directions. The principal factor which has a strong impact upon the formation of wind is unequal air pressure. This difference in atmospheric pressure results in the formation of wind when air moves from high-pressure areas towards low-pressure areas. The principal factor which has a strong impact upon the formation of wind is unequal air pressure. This difference in atmospheric pressure results in the formation of wind when air moves from high-pressure areas towards low-pressure areas. Solar energy drives the earth´s weather. A large fraction of the incident radiation is absorbed by the oceans and the seas, which are warmed than evaporate and give the power to the rains which feed hydro power plants.Weathering processes are driven by four main forms of energy: gravity, organic energy, solar energy and anthropogenic energy and gravity influences all movements of solid, liquid and gaseous materials. Energy from the sun drives the movement of wind and water that causes the erosion, movement, and sedimentation of weathered Earth materials. iii. Given the right setting, any rock on Earth can be changed into a new type of rock by processes driven by the Earth's internal energy or by energy from the sun. It is the Sun's energy that heats the Earth and drives the ocean currents, winds and our weather. Earth's weather and climate are mostly driven by energy from the Sun. For example, unequal warming of Earth's surface and atmosphere by the Sun drives convection within the atmosphere, producing winds, and influencing ocean currents.

In general, the greenhouse effect refers to any situation where short wavelengths of light pass through some medium (it could be glass or the atmosphere) and get absorbed whereas longer wavelengths of infrared radiation pass through, are re-radiated from objects and then unable to pass through the medium. Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and certain synthetic chemicals, trap some of the Earth's outgoing energy, thus retaining heat in the atmosphere. Now, the warmer greenhouse gases emit infrared radiation based on their temperature. When the Earth emits radiation, it has nowhere to go but up, but greenhouse gases can emit radiation in all directions. Outline how greenhouse gases interact with radiation and contribute to global warming. When sunlight comes to earth, it is in short wave radiation. Greenhouse gases (CO2, O2, CH4, etc) trap the heat and radiation in the earth’s atmosphere which heats up the earth and contributes to global warming. Certain gases in the atmosphere absorb energy, slowing or preventing the loss of heat to space. Those gases are known as “greenhouse gases.” They act like a blanket, making the earth warmer than it would otherwise be. This process, commonly known as the “greenhouse effect,” is natural and necessary to support life. A greenhouse gas is called that because it absorbs infrared radiation from the Sun in the form of heat, which is circulated in the atmosphere and eventually lost to space. About a third of the Sun's energy (30%) is reflected back into space. The rest of the Sun's energy (20%) is absorbed by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, like carbon dioxide, water vapor, and methane. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere also absorb and hold some of the heat energy radiating back from Earth's surface. Greenhouse gases are more complex than other gas molecules in the atmosphere, with a structure that can absorb heat. They radiate the heat back to the Earth's surface, to another greenhouse gas molecule, or out to space.

Certain gases in the atmosphere absorb energy, slowing or preventing the loss of heat to space. Those gases are known as “greenhouse gases.” They act like a blanket, making the earth warmer than it would otherwise be. This process, commonly known as the “greenhouse effect,” is natural and necessary to support life. The Earth radiates energy at wavelengths much longer than the Sun because it is colder. Part of this longwave radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases which then radiate energy into all directions, including downwards and thereby trapping heat in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases let the solar radiation reach the Earth's surface, but they absorb infrared radiation emitted by the Earth and thereby lead to the heating of the surface of the planet. One needs to distinguish between the natural greenhouse effect and the enhanced greenhouse effect. Greenhouse gas molecules in the atmosphere absorb light, preventing some of it from escaping the Earth. This heats up the atmosphere and raises the planet's average temperature. The greenhouse effect is the way in which heat is trapped close to Earth's surface by “greenhouse gases.” These heat-trapping gases can be thought of as a blanket wrapped around Earth, keeping the planet toastier than it would be without them. The Earth absorbs most of the energy reaching its surface, a small fraction is reflected. In total approximately 70% of incoming radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and the Earth's surface while around 30% is reflected back to space and does not heat the surface. After passing through the atmosphere, solar radiation reaches the oceanic and continental land surface and is reflected or absorbed. Finally, the surface returns it to outer space in the form of long-wave radiation. Some of this incoming radiation is reflected off clouds, some is absorbed by the atmosphere, and some passes through to the Earth's surface. Larger aerosol particles in the atmosphere interact with and absorb some of the radiation, causing the atmosphere to warm.Radiant energy exits the Sun and interacts with Earth's atmosphere on its way to the ground or water surface. Solar radiance that makes it through the atmosphere and reaches the planet's surface can be reflected, transmitted, or absorbed and reradiated. Nearly 70% of solar radiation is absorbed by the earth's atmosphere and oceans, and the rest is reflected back into space. The absorbed radiation is re-emitted as infrared radiation. The greenhouse effect is a process that occurs when gases in Earth's atmosphere trap the Sun's heat. This process makes Earth much warmer than it would be without an atmosphere. Greenhouse gases are transparent to incoming (short-wave) radiation from the sun but block infrared (long-wave) radiation from leaving the earth's atmosphere. This greenhouse effect traps radiation from the sun and warms the planet's surface.

Greenhouse gases affect the heat flow into and out of Earth's atmosphere by absorbing some of the heat that is radiated from the Earth's surface. This heat is then re-radiated back to the Earth, which helps to keep the planet warm. Without greenhouse gases, the Earth would be much colder than it is today.

The main greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas, but it also has the shortest atmospheric lifetime. Carbon dioxide is the second most abundant greenhouse gas, and it has a much longer atmospheric lifetime. Methane and nitrous oxide are also important greenhouse gases, but they are much less abundant than carbon dioxide. The difference between greenhouse gases and global warming is that greenhouse gases are the substances that cause global warming, but global warming is the overall warming of the Earth's climate system. Global warming is caused by the increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. These gases trap heat from the sun, which warms the planet.

The main human activities that release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere are the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and agriculture. Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, are burned to generate electricity, heat homes and businesses, and power vehicles. When these fuels are burned, they release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Deforestation is the clearing of forests for agriculture, development, or other purposes. When forests are cleared, the trees that absorb carbon dioxide are removed, which releases this gas into the atmosphere. Agriculture also releases greenhouse gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide.

Global warming is a serious problem that is already having a significant impact on the Earth's climate. The impacts of global warming include rising sea levels, more extreme weather events, changes in precipitation patterns, and melting glaciers and ice sheets. These impacts are expected to become more severe in the future if greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise.

There are a number of things that can be done to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the effects of global warming. These include switching to renewable energy sources, improving energy efficiency, and reducing deforestation. It is important to take action on global warming now to avoid the worst impacts of this problem.

Divergence occurs when horizontal winds cause a net outflow of air from a region (more air leaving a vertical column of air than entering), while convergence occurs when horizontal winds cause a net inflow of air into a region. Speed divergence is cause by winds rapidly increasing speed downstream on the pressure surface. High wind speeds will pull mass out of an area faster than it can be replaced by the slower wind speeds, thus decreasing the mass. Speed Convergence is caused by winds rapidly decreasing speed downstream.Speed divergence is cause by winds rapidly increasing speed downstream on the pressure surface. High wind speeds will pull mass out of an area faster than it can be replaced by the slower wind speeds, thus decreasing the mass. Speed Convergence is caused by winds rapidly decreasing speed downstream. The terms are usually used to refer specifically to the horizontal inflow or outflow of air. The convergence of horizontal winds causes air to rise, whereas the divergence of horizontal winds causes downward motion of the air. Speed Convergence is caused by winds rapidly decreasing speed downstream. The higher wind speeds push mass into an area faster than it can be removed by the slower wind speeds, thus increasing the mass. Wind direction and speed will offset each other on constant pressure charts.Divergence generally means two things are moving apart while convergence implies that two forces are moving together. In the world of economics, finance, and trading, divergence and convergence are terms used to describe the directional relationship of two trends, prices, or indicators. The warm air that has travelled up from the equator converges with the cold air at 60° of latitude that has travelled down from the polar regions. As the air converges the warm air is forced to rise and move back towards the equator. The overall effect of the Polar cell is to move cold air towards the equator. Convection currents are the result of differential heating. Lighter (less dense), warm material rises while heavier (more dense) cool material sinks. It is this movement that creates circulation patterns known as convection currents in the atmosphere, in water, and in the mantle of Earth. Convection works when a liquid or gas is unevenly heated. Hot liquids (and gases) are less dense and rise, causing. The warmer section of the material will rise while the cooler part sinks. This creates a current of warmer material going up and a current of cooler material going down. When air moving along the surface of the Earth is confronted by a mountain, it is forced up and over the mountain, cooling as it rises. If the air cools to its saturation point, the water vapor condenses and a cloud forms.

The strength of air pressure is maximum at the earth's surface because due to higher strength of gravitational pull large numbers of atmospheric gases come closer to each other and form a denser layer, so due to formation of this denser layer the air pressure increases over the earth surface. The pressure exerted by the air in the atmosphere is greatest at Earth's surface and falls as altitude increases. The reason is that density and depth of the atmosphere are greatest at sea level and decline with increasing altitude. What this implies is that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing height. Since most of the atmosphere's molecules are held close to the earth's surface by the force of gravity, air pressure decreases rapidly at first, then more slowly at higher levels. The gravitational attraction between the earth and air molecules is greater for those molecules nearer to earth than those further away they have more weight dragging them closer together and increasing the pressure between them.Atmospheric pressure is not the same everywhere on Earth. Atmospheric pressure depends on the altitude of your location. Many places on Earth are at sea level, which has an atmospheric pressure of 1 kilogram per square centimeter. Pressure varies from day to day at the Earth's surface - the bottom of the atmosphere. This is, in part, because the Earth is not equally heated by the Sun. Areas where the air is warmed often have lower pressure because the warm air rises. These areas are called low pressure systems. What this implies is that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing height. Since most of the atmosphere's molecules are held close to the earth's surface by the force of gravity, air pressure decreases rapidly at first, then more slowly at higher levels. The depth (distance from top to bottom) of the atmosphere is greatest at sea level and decreases at higher altitudes. With greater depth of the atmosphere, more air is pressing down from above. Therefore, air pressure is greatest at sea level and falls with increasing altitude.I t is more dense near the earth. It goes on thinning out as we go up. So, there being more density of air near the earth, there is more air pressure. As the density of air goes on decreasing, its weight and consequently the air pressure goes on decreasing with increase of height.

On the surface, wind moves away from high pressure (High) and toward low pressure (Low). Convergence occurs near the equator (winds blow in towards one another) and Divergence occurs under the descending air that forms high-pressure belts.The location of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone is readily identified as a line of cumulus clouds in the tropics. This is where northeast winds from the Northern Hemisphere converge with the southeast winds from the Southern Hemisphere. In the first, hot air at the equator rises because it is warm and buoyant. It reaches the tropopause, spreading laterally north and south at high elevations. To compensate for the rising air, surface air flows toward the equator, resulting in convergence and further uplift. Divergence aloft is associated with rising air throughout the troposphere, which is associated with low pressure and convergence at the surface. Convergence aloft is associated with sinking air throughout the troposphere, which is associated with high pressure at the surface and thus divergence at the surface. Air moving in toward a center of low pressure or a trough is forced to rise, exhibiting a motion called convergence. Similarly, air moving outward from a ridge or center of high pressure descends, exhibiting divergence. There are four main processes occurring at or near the earth's surface which give can rise to ascending air: convergence, convection, frontal lifting and physical lifting. Divergence occurs when horizontal winds cause a net outflow of air from a region (more air leaving a vertical column of air than entering), while convergence occurs when horizontal winds cause a net inflow of air into a region. This causes convergence in the center of the low pressure system at the surface. It is this surface convergence which leads to rising air which can create clouds and even cause rain and storms to form. The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) lies in the equatorial trough, a permanent low-pressure feature where surface trade winds, laden with heat and moisture, converge to form a zone of increased convection, cloudiness, and precipitation. Places where the air pressure is high are called high pressure systems. A low pressure system has lower pressure at its center than the areas around it. Winds blow towards the low pressure, and the air rises in the atmosphere where they meet. Convergence in a horizontal wind field indicates that more air is entering a given area than is leaving at that level. To compensate for the resulting "excess," vertical motion may result: upward forcing if convergence is at low levels, or downward forcing (subsidence) if convergence is at high levels. Aloft, over surface high pressure areas, winds converge, and then move down (subside and are compressed thus warm) and at the surface diverge to move toward the less dense areas of low pressure. This 10-degree belt around Earth's midsection is called the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone, more commonly known as the doldrums. Intense solar heat in the doldrums warms and moistens the trade winds, thrusting air upwards into the atmosphere like a hot air balloon.

Air from the equatorial region flows pole ward high in the atmosphere because there is a pressure gradient with the high pressure region at the Equator. The wind at the surface moves toward the equator due to the pressure gradient at the surface. Air rises at the equator, leading to low pressure and rainfall. When the air reaches the edge of the atmosphere, it cannot go any further and so it travels to the north and south. The air becomes colder and denser, and falls, creating high pressure and dry conditions at around 30° north and south of the equator. Consequently, the rising warm air at the equator becomes even less dense as it rises and its pressure decreases. An area of low pressure, therefore, exists over the equator. Warm air rises until it reaches a certain height at which it starts to spill over into surrounding areas. At the poles, the cold dense air sinks. Air from the equatorial region flows pole ward high in the atmosphere because there is a pressure gradient with the high pressure region at the Equator. The wind at the surface moves toward the equator due to the pressure gradient at the surface. Because the Earth spins on its axis, and because the surface temperature is greater at the equator than at the poles, the atmosphere extends further out into space at the equator than at the poles. Generally, over a low pressure area the air will converge and rise and over a high pressure area the air will subside from above and diverge at the surface, which is referred to as convergence and divergence of winds. A low-pressure system must compensate for the convergence of mass near the surface and shed that mass at high altitudes. Therefore, you will usually see a region of air diverging from the column over the center of a developing low-pressure system. As the sun heats the surface of the Earth, air is heated and rises. Because the Equator receives the most solar heating, air rises in the equatorial region, creating a low-pressure region. Since the number of air molecules above a surface decreases with height, pressure likewise decreases with height. Most of the atmosphere's molecules are held close to the earth's surface by gravity. Because of this, air pressure decreases rapidly at first, then more slowly at higher levels.

Dr Gaurav H Tandon thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Dr Gaurav H Tandon thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Dr Gaurav H Tandon thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Dr Ahmed Mahmood Abdullah Daabo thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Plants respond directly to Earth's gravitational attraction, and also to light. Stems grow upward, or away from the center of Earth, and towards light. Roots grow downward, or towards the center of Earth, and away from light. The shoots grow upwards and away from the earth, while the roots grow downwards. Geotropism refers to the upward and downward growth of shoots and roots in response to the earth's gravitational pull. The roots grown downward in the direction of gravity, which is positive gravitropism and the shoot, grows upward away from gravity, which is negative gravitropism. The reason plants know which way to grow in response to gravity is due to amyloplasts in the plants. Gravity plays a particularly important role during the early stages of seedling growth by stimulating a negative gravitropic response in the primary shoot that orientates it towards the source of light, and a positive gravitropic response in the primary root that causes it to grow down into the soil, providing support. When a stem is placed horizontally, the bottom side contains more auxin and grows more - causing the stem to grow upwards against the force of gravity. In a root placed horizontally, the bottom side contains more auxin and grows less - causing the root to grow in the direction of the force of gravity. Gravity perception is important to plants because they need to send their roots downwards towards water and nutrients and their shoots upwards towards light. Plants are known to detect gravity using statoliths, which are small starch-filled packets that settle at the bottom of gravity-sensing cells. Gravity affects the ecology and evolution of every living organism. In plants, the general response to gravity is well known: their roots respond positively, growing down, into the soil, and their stems respond negatively, growing upward, to reach the sunlight.

claude.ai (wrote):

The concept being discussed involves analyzing and quantifying the amount of bias present in AI regulations across different nations and sovereign groups. Each nation or sovereign entity likely has its own interests and goals when it comes to AI regulation.

The aim seems to be to quantify the degree of bias in these AI regulatory frameworks relative to the stated goals and development roadmaps for quantum computing laid out by various countries and organizations.

Presumably different nations have articulated their own visions and plans for advancing quantum computing technologies and capabilities. However, inherent biases in their AI regulations may positively or negatively impact their ability to actually achieve their stated quantum development goals.

By quantifying the level of bias in these AI regulations relative to the quantum development goals, the hope seems to be to reveal insights about whether the AI regulatory biases will help or hinder progress towards the articulated quantum computing achievements. Significant biases could distort markets and incentives related to quantum computing research and commercialization in ways misaligned from a country's stated goals.

Some examples of how this analysis could uncover issues:

By quantifying the bias in AI regulations and comparing to quantum goals, it may be possible to identify misalignments, inconsistencies, and points of friction that could be addressed. This could potentially improve international collaboration in quantum research and help countries achieve their quantum development aims.

When the earth's surface is unevenly heated it leads to pressure difference and this pressure difference is the reason for the production of winds. Sun is responsible for the uneven heating of the earth's surface. Wind is caused by uneven heating of the earth's surface by the sun. Because the earth's surface is made up of different types of land and water, the earth absorbs the sun's heat at different rates. One example of this uneven heating is the daily wind cycle.The energy that drives wind originates with the sun, which heats the Earth unevenly, creating warm spots and cool spots. Two simple examples of this are sea breezes and land breezes. Sea breezes occur when inland areas heat up on sunny afternoons. That warms the air, causing it to rise. Gases move from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas. And the bigger the difference between the pressures, the faster the air will move from the high to the low pressure. That rush of air is the wind we experience. Due to uneven heating of atmospheric gases pressure zones are created because gases after being heated move in upward direction other gases which are comparatively cool rush to fill the vacant space and the phenomena of wind blow takes place. The movement of air through Earth's or any planet's atmosphere is called wind, and the main cause of Earth's winds is uneven heating by the sun. This uneven heating causes changes of atmospheric pressure, and winds blow from regions with high pressure to those with low pressure. The pressure gradient force causes winds to blow. Winds blow from higher pressure to lower pressure; the bigger the pressure difference, the greater the wind speed. As air warms, it expands. The warm air over the land becomes less dense than the cooler air and rises into the atmosphere and cooler, denser air nearby flows in to take its place. This moving air is what we call wind.The sun is what makes the water cycle work. The sun provides what almost everything on Earth needs to go energy, or heat. Heat causes liquid and frozen water to evaporate into water vapor gas, which rises high in the sky to form clouds... clouds that move over the globe and drop rain and snow. The water cycle is driven primarily by the energy from the sun. This solar energy drives the cycle by evaporating water from the oceans, lakes, rivers, and even the soil. Other water moves from plants to the atmosphere through the process of transpiration. In the water cycle, evaporation occurs when sunlight warms the surface of the water. The heat from the sun makes the water molecules move faster and faster, until they move so fast they escape as a gas. Once evaporated, a molecule of water vapor spends about ten days in the air. In the water cycle, evaporation occurs when sunlight warms the surface of the water. The heat from the sun makes the water molecules move faster and faster, until they move so fast they escape as a gas. Once evaporated, a molecule of water vapor spends about ten days in the air.

As the ground bakes in the sun, the air right above it heats up and starts to rise, and as it gets higher, it experiences a decrease in pressure that allows it to expand and lose heat. And the more air expands, the colder it becomes. Higher elevations are cooler than lower elevations because of adiabatic heating. When a parcel of air moves from a low elevation to a high elevation, it expands because it is under less pressure. It has less weight pressing down on it from the air above it. As the air expands, its temperature drops. The farther away you get from the earth, the thinner the atmosphere gets. The total heat content of a system is directly related to the amount of matter present, so it is cooler at higher elevations. During the winter, the sun's rays hit the Earth at a shallow angle. These rays are more spread out, which minimizes the amount of energy that hits any given spot. Also, the long nights and short days prevent the Earth from warming up. It might seem logical to think that temperatures would rise when Earth is closest to the sun. In reality, Earth is at its coolest at perihelion! That's because rocks heat up much more quickly than water. Most of the landmass on Earth is in the Northern Hemisphere, and most of the Southern Hemisphere is ocean. As air rises, the pressure decreases. It is this lower pressure at higher altitudes that causes the temperature to be colder on top of a mountain than at sea level. Due to the spherical shape of the Earth, sunlight falls on different parts at different angles. Direct and focused sun rays falls on the equator and hence, the regions here are hotter and warmer. The Polar Regions receive diffused sun rays, which is why the areas there are colder. A beam of sunlight falling on the equator has a much more intense effect than the glancing rays spread over a much larger area of the curving surface near the poles. Therefore, it is hotter at the equator than at the North Pole because the sun's heat is concentrated directly overhead at the equator. The temperature of the Polar Regions is significantly colder than the equatorial regions because the sun's rays are not directly at the poles. Thus poles receive the slanted rays of the sun. The equator is a crucial imaginary line that separates the north and south hemispheres, and therefore it gets direct sunlight. Due to the spherical shape of the Earth, sunlight falls on different parts at different angles. Direct and focused sun rays falls on the equator and hence, the regions here are hotter and warmer. The Polar Regions receive diffused sun rays, which is why the areas there are colder. Because they receive less concentrated sunlight, Polar Regions are much colder than other parts of the planet. In the summer, the average temperature at the North Pole is 0° C.At low latitudes, near the equator, direct overhead sunlight received all year warms surface waters. At high latitudes, ocean waters receive less sunlight – the poles receive only 40 percent of the heat that the equator does.

The convergence of horizontal winds causes air to rise, whereas the divergence of horizontal winds causes downward motion of the air. Ground-level atmospheric pressure is not affected by convergence if divergence of an equal magnitude occurs simultaneously at higher levels. Aloft, over surface high pressure areas, winds converge, and then move down and at the surface diverge to move toward the less dense areas of low pressure. It is the force of friction that causes surface convergence into low pressure and surface divergence from high pressure. This convergence and divergence is what helps to enhance or suppress the pressure systems moving along the surface. For example, an area of diverging air in the upper troposphere will lower the air density aloft, encouraging the uplift of lower-level air and enhancing a surface low beneath it. Since the winds at the surface flow toward lower pressure and away from higher pressure, surface low pressure areas are associated with surface convergence, forced rising air, and a good possibility for clouds and precipitation, while surface high pressure areas are associated with surface divergence, forced sinking. Because the Earth rotates on its axis, circulating air is deflected toward the right in the Northern Hemisphere and toward the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This deflection is called the Coriolis effect. Convergence in the lower troposphere takes place near surface low pressure areas. Clouds and precipitation form in regions where air is ascending or moving upward. While air swirls inward and converges into the center of surface low pressure, an "upper-level disturbance" cause’s divergence aloft that allows air columns to shed weight. The end result is raising air, and usually clouds and precipitation associated with a low. Upper level divergence lowers pressures and heights because some mass is removed in the upper troposphere from that region. This causes the air to rise from the lower troposphere and results in a cooling of the air. Convergence occurs near the equator (winds blow in towards one another) and Divergence occurs under the descending air that forms high-pressure belts.

I do believe this Ruddimann Hypothesis is valid.

As agriculture is the first cause of accelerated global warming and delayed ice age is it possible we need to reassess our sole focus on emissions from our activities and access the role of agriculture combined with emissions controls to sequester our way out of what could be the growing AGW issues we now face.

I believe the answer is yes and will lead us to have a more complete focus on how both emission control and sequestrations with agriculture playing a pivotable part in reversing the dangerous current situation.

Generating renewable energy creates far lower emissions than burning fossil fuels. Transitioning from fossil fuels, which currently account for the lion's share of emissions, to renewable energy is key to addressing the climate crisis. The sun is the main source of energy on Earth. Other energy sources include coal, geothermal energy, wind energy, biomass, petrol, nuclear energy, and many more. Energy is classified into various types based on sustainability as renewable sources of energy and non-renewable sources of energy. In most ecosystems, the ultimate source of all energy is the sun. Nuclear is a zero-emission clean energy source. It generates power through fission, which is the process of splitting uranium atoms to produce energy. The heat released by fission is used to create steam that spins a turbine to generate electricity without the harmful byproducts emitted by fossil fuels. Petrol, diesel, and kerosene are petroleum products and they produce pollutants like carbon-dioxide and smoke. CNG or compressed natural gas is a smoke-free gas and does not spread pollution, and thus used in our vehicles. Therefore, CNG is considered as an eco-friendly fuel. Green energy is that energy which does not pollute the environment and is renewable in nature. The energy sources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, etc. can be called as green energy. This is because these are readily available on Earth, can be naturally replenished and do not even harm the environment much. In a world without fossil fuels, the sun might be used for cooking or heating homes and water, but as an energy source for industry it's probably not viable. That leaves wind and water. On the sea, wind powered most trade and exploration until well into the 19th century. Without electricity, there would be no cash machines, no lifts, no power to keep the factories going, and no petrol pumps. Ventilators and medical treatment machines will stop working, putting patients in critical conditions throughout the hospital.

When marine organisms die, their bodies sink into the sediments at the bottom of the ocean. The carbon from their bodies is released which forms marine sediments that arc the largest store of carbon on earth. The oceans and the water bodies contain 36,000 gigatons of carbon in the form of underwater sediments and rocks. The crust of Earth contains 550 gigatons of carbon. This comprises the biosphere of which soil is a part. Thus, based on the above information we can conclude that Ocean is the largest reservoir of carbon. The ocean contains the bulk of the world's carbon with 38,855 GtC (Gigatonnes of carbon). The next largest store is in soil and sediment. This includes soil, fossil fuel deposits, marine sediment, permafrost and carbonate minerals such as chalk and limestone.Carbon is stored in four main reservoirs oceans (the largest reservoir), geological reserves of fossil fuels, the terrestrial surface (plants and soil, mainly), and the atmosphere. Over 99.9% of the earth’s carbon is stored in the lithosphere predominantely in sedimentary rocks such as limestone. 0.004% is stored in fossil fuels and carbon in the lithosphere is held in soil in the form of both organic and inorganic carbon. The largest reservoir of carbon on earth is the deep oceans. The amount of carbon present in the ocean is about 37,000 GtC, whereas in the atmosphere, it is about 750 GtC and in the biosphere, it is 610 GtC. Carbon is found in the biosphere stored in plants and trees. Plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to make the building blocks of food during photosynthesis. Carbon is found in the hydrosphere dissolved in ocean water and lakes. Carbon is used by many organisms to produce shells. By far the larger reservoir of carbon is the deep water of the ocean, which is thought to contain about 80% of the Earth System's carbon. Oceanic sediments are thought to contain 4%. Ocean surface waters and the atmosphere each hold about 2% of the Earth system's carbon reservoirs.A carbon sink absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The ocean, soil and forests are the world's largest carbon sinks.The sheer volume of CO₂ emitted by coal-fired power plants makes the electric power sector the largest source of GHGs in India. The second-largest contributor is the agriculture sector, which produces huge amounts of methane (CH₄) from rice paddies and cattle. The electricity and heat sector was responsible the largest share of India's greenhouse gas emissions in 2020, at 35 percent (excluding LUCF). More than 95 percent of India's power sector emissions are produced by coal-fired power plants - the country's primary source of electricity generation.

Thank you very much Prof Changyi Xu .

How is the position of the Earth's pole at this moment (e.g. right now) described?

What are the reference point(s)/ reference direction(s)/ reference axes? Is it an angular or linear measurement(s)?

Excelente Respuesta. Felicitaciones.

Indira Sagar Dam reservoirs are the largest reservoir in India in terms of water storage capacity with capacity of 12.22 billion cubic metres. It is located in the Khandwa district of Madhya Pradesh. The oceans are, by far, the largest reservoir of carbon, followed by geological reserves of fossil fuels, the terrestrial surface (plans and soil), and the atmosphere. Kariba dam is the biggest dam in the world by reservoir capacity, Image courtesy of Sokwanele – Zimbabwe. Bratsk Dam in Siberia has a water storage capacity of 169.27 billion cubic metres, Image courtesy of Michael Fludkov. Akosombo dam, which creates the Lake Volta, has 144 billion cubic metres of storage capacity. By far the largest reservoir of Earth's oxygen is within the silicate and oxide minerals of the crust and mantle (99.5% by weight). The majority, about 89 %, of this heat is stored in the ocean, followed by about 6 % on land, 1 % in the atmosphere, and about 4 % available for melting the cryosphere. Over the most recent period (2006–2020), the EEI amounts to 0.76±0.2 W m−2. Throughout Earth's history, water has been distributed between four distinct reservoirs—the oceans, ice sheets and glaciers (the cryosphere), terrestrial storage and the atmosphere. Biogeochemical cycles can be classed as gaseous, in which the reservoir is the air or the oceans (via evaporation), and sedimentary, in which the reservoir is Earth's crust. Nitrogen moves slowly through the cycle and is stored in reservoirs such as the atmosphere, living organisms, soils, and oceans along the way. Most of the nitrogen on Earth is in the atmosphere.Nitrogen is in the soil under our feet, in the water we drink, and in the air we breathe. In fact, nitrogen is the most abundant element in Earth's atmosphere: approximately 78% of the atmosphere is nitrogen! Nitrogen is important to all living things, including us. The largest reservoir of the Earth's carbon is located in the deep-ocean, with 37,000 billion tons of carbon stored, whereas approximately 65,500 billion tons are found in the globe. Carbon flows between each reservoir via the carbon cycle, which has slow and fast components.Most of Earth's carbon is stored in rocks and sediments. The rest is located in the ocean, atmosphere, and in living organisms. These are the reservoirs through which carbon cycles. Carbon dioxide concentrations are rising mostly because of the fossil fuels that people are burning for energy.

Phytoplankton can also sink to the bottom of the ocean, where they become buried in marine sediment. Over long time scales, this process has made the ocean floor the largest reservoir of carbon on the planet. The largest reservoir of the Earth's carbon is located in the deep-ocean, with 37,000 billion tons of carbon stored, whereas approximately 65,500 billion tons are found in the globe. Carbon flows between each reservoir via the carbon cycle, which has slow and fast components.Our oceans hold the most carbon in the world. The largest reservoir of carbon in the world is in the ocean. The ocean contains approximately 50 times more carbon than the atmosphere. It also contains 16 times more carbon than all plant and animal life on Earth combined. The largest water reservoir is the ocean, containing 97.3% of all water on Earth. This is of course salt water and is toxic unless specially treated to remove the salt. The next biggest reservoirs are glaciers and polar ice containing just over 2% of the available water. The oceans are, by far, the largest reservoir of carbon, followed by geological reserves of fossil fuels, the terrestrial surface and the atmosphere. The smallest reservoir is the atmosphere. The arrows on the diagram indicate fluxes of carbon between reservoirs. Each flux arrow has a sink and a source component. A sink is a removal mechanism and takes carbon out of a reservoir and a source is a mechanism that adds carbon to a reservoir. The ocean, soil and forests are the world's largest carbon sinks. A carbon source releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Examples of carbon sources include the burning of fossil fuels like gas, coal and oil, deforestation and volcanic eruptions. Throughout Earth's history, water has been distributed between four distinct reservoirs the oceans, ice sheets and glaciers, terrestrial storage and the atmosphere.

The earth would become warmer, the average temperature will increase. There will be several new weather patterns and the sea levels would rise. Eventually humans would die out. Estimates vary, but we're expected to reach "peak human" around 2070 or 2080, at which point there will be between billion and 10.4 billion people on the planet. The earth would become warmer, the average temperature will increase. There will be several new weather patterns and the sea levels would rise. Eventually humans would die out. So if everyone on Earth lived like a middle class American, then the planet might have a carrying capacity of around 2 billion. However, if people only consumed what they actually needed, then the Earth could potentially support a much higher figure.Heat waves will be more frequent and long-lasting, causing droughts, global food shortages, migration, and increased spread of infectious diseases. Moreover, as the polar ice will melt, sea levels will rise substantially, affecting a large number of coastline cities and as many as 275 million of their inhabitants. Technically yes, we have enough space- 197 million square miles on earth which equates to 5,492,044,800,000,000 square feet which is more than enough to have a trillion people on earth. But that assuming we manage to build on water. I mean it would still fit without oceans, just more cramped.Robots and automation would be ubiquitous in many industries, from manufacturing to healthcare to transportation. This could lead to a world where many jobs are automated, but also a world where people are freed up to pursue more creative and fulfilling work. In the next 1,000 years, the amount of languages spoken on the planet are set to seriously diminish, and all that extra heat and UV radiation could see darker skin become an evolutionary advantage. And we're all set to get a whole lot taller and thinner, if we want to survive, that is. Portions of this sphere could be terraformed and given stable atmospheres, oceans, and landmasses. And it could become a habitat for many sentient life forms, including biological humans, transhumant, clones, and androids. An ecological footprint is the area required to sustainably support a given population rather than the population that a given area can sustainably support. An ecological footprint is therefore the inverse of carrying capacity and provides a quantitative estimate of human carrying capacity. Ecological Footprint is expressed in ha/capita, while the ecological carrying capacity is usually expressed in units/ha, thus making the concept as if it were the opposite of each other. Carrying capacity is a technical term that refers to the maximum population of species that can be supported by land or sea. Carrying capacity can be defined as a species' average population size in a particular habitat. The species population size is limited by environmental factors like adequate food, shelter, water, and mates. If these needs are not met, the population will decrease until the resource rebounds. Economic development increases the ecological footprint, which means that the higher the economic level of individual regions, the higher the burden on the environment. economic development increases the ecological footprint, which means that the higher the economic level of individual regions, the higher the burden on the environment. The ecological footprint, as a key determinant of quality of life, reflects the importance of sustainability in expanding people's choices. The ecological footprint measures the amount of natural capital required to support human consumption

Greater biodiversity in ecosystems, species, and individuals leads to greater stability. As, species with high genetic diversity and many populations that are adapted to a wide variety of conditions are more likely to be able to weather disturbances, disease, and climate change. Loss of biodiversity undermines ecosystems' abilities to function effectively and efficiently and thus undermines nature's ability to support a healthy environment. This is particularly important in a changing climate in which loss of biodiversity reduces nature's resilience to change.Ecosystems with high biodiversity can recover from disturbances better than ecosystems with low biodiversity. This means healthy ecosystems are more likely to continue to support humans even as the earth goes through extreme changes.High biodiversity is advantageous over low biodiversity because ecosystems with high biodiversity are better able to remain at homeostasis and be productive. When biodiversity is high, there is a large number of different species. Biologically diverse communities are also more likely to contain species that confer resilience to that ecosystem because as a community accumulates species, there is a higher chance of any one of them having traits that enable them to adapt to a changing environment. Biodiversity is essential for the processes that support all life on Earth, including humans. Without a wide range of animals, plants and microorganisms, we cannot have healthy ecosystems. Species richness is a measure of the number of different types of species in an ecosystem. A large number of different species in a habitat represents higher species richness, and an overall more diverse ecosystem. Species evenness is a measure of the relative abundance of each species. Ecosystems with higher species diversity tend to be more resilient. If an ecosystem has a diverse community of organisms, they are not all likely to be affected by a disturbance in the same way. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth; it is usually greater in the tropics as a result of the warm climate and high primary productivity in the region near the equator. Tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 10% of earth's surface and contain about 90% of the world's species. Regions with cold or dry conditions, such as mountaintops and deserts, have even less. Generally, the closer a region is to the Equator, the greater the biodiversity. At least 40,000 different plant species live in the Amazon rainforest of South America, one of the most biologically diverse regions on the planet. Species diversity is higher at the equator than at the poles. In biological terms, this is referred to as the latitudinal diversity gradient (LDG), in which the number of species increases from the poles to the Equator. This ranks among the broadest and most notable biodiversity patterns on Earth.