Differential Psychology - Science topic

p> Relevance. According to WHO forecasts, the incidence of cancer is expected to increase by 35,000,000 cases in the next 25 years, this forecast threatens to increase the number of people dying annually due to cancer pathology. At the same time, according to statistics, about 9,000,000 people die annually in the world due to various oncopathologie...

The ARBI-Q is a 24-item dimensional adult self-report measure of the “criterion B” (restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior and interest, i.e., RRB) features of DSM-5-defined autism spectrum disorder (hereafter “autism”). These non-social features of autism are largely understudied in adulthood, particularly as they present in the general po...

The psychological states are essential to maintain a healthy balance and optimize performance, especially in athletes. Sex-related differences in elite athletes are one of the important factors, which are ambiguous. This study aims to explore sex differences in psychological states of 36 professional athletes (12M/24F, 21.6±3.9 y, 166.3±8.9 cm, 56....

The article reviews parts of sociological, criminological and psychological approaches concerning the research into the factors instigating and restraining criminality. An attempt is made to identify the spheres within the competence of the science of psychology that focus on the study of crime in traditional theories and mark prospective research...

This study proposes an approach to describing personality dynamics through mathematical modelling of introversion, extroversion, and ambiversion processes. Introversion is interpreted as a recursive process characterized by deep self-awareness and inner reflection; extroversion is presented as an iterative process of accumulating and processing ext...

The prediction of subject traits using brain data is an important goal in neuroscience, with relevant applications in clinical research, as well as in the study of differential psychology and cognition. While previous prediction work has predominantly been done on neuroimaging data, our focus is on electroencephalography (EEG), a relatively inexpen...

В статье представлена проблема формирования педагогической и психологической компетентностей будущих педагогов начальной школы. Раскрыт содержательный аспект формирования педагогической компетентности будущих учителей заключается в формировании дидактической, воспитательной и организационной компетенций, каждая из которых формируется во внутренней...

In an online experiment in a German and an English version, portrait photographs of 59 men from the age range late 20s to late 50s served as stimulus material. 1618 participants each rated a randomly selected photo on 36 personality-descriptive rating scales and estimated the age, body height and weight. In supplementary assessments, the degree of...

The present paper aims to contribute to a convergence of two distinct approaches to social influence, one based on persuasion literature, and one based on the genetic model of social influence. Moreover, the goal is to disentangle the conditions that affect the complex relations among source status, kind of influence, type of argumentation, and psy...

In an online experiment in a German and an English version, portrait photographs of 59 men from the age range late 20s to late 50s served as stimulus material. 1618 participants each rated a randomly selected photo on 36 personality-descriptive rating scales and estimated the age, body height and weight. In supplementary assessments, the degree of...

Objective: Refugees show elevated rates of complex posttraumatic stress disorder (CPTSD). However, relatively little is known regarding the psychological mechanisms that underlie the association between exposure to potentially traumatic events (PTEs) and CPTSD following exposure to war, persecution and displacement. In this study, we investigated t...

This book is designed to equip Student-Teachers and in-service Teachers in Universities, Colleges of Education, and other Teacher Training Institutions with the necessary required skills that make a teacher competent. The book consists of sixteen chapters that explicate the rudiments of teaching, teaching methods, application of some innovative tea...

Due to rising popularity of vegetarianism in recent years, research interest has surged in examining the relationship between vegetarianism and psychological health. However, given inconsistent findings in prior research, the answer to whether practicing vegetarianism is associated with better or worse psychological health is still elusive. The pre...

Two implicit generalizations are often made from group-level studies in cognitive experimental psychology and their common statistical analysis in the general linear model: (1) Group-level phenomena are assumed to be present in every participant with variations between participants being often treated as random error in data analyses; (2) phenomena...

Modernity provides us with a large number of technologies for self-identification. We meet them both in pseudoscientific discourse (for example: in astrology — natal charts, horoscopes), and scientific, in the field of psychology (classification of personalities by V. Stern, K.G. Jung, A.F. Lazursky, etc.). These technologies for self-identificatio...

This research is under the title of (The relation between psychological linguistics andgender) it's an attempt for indicating the affection of language about individuals innermind and this inflexibility that will be created in psychological condition. If it is in theform of positive or negative will be affected. The individual meets themselves in a...

In the Posner cueing paradigm, the early attentional capture and subsequent inhibition of return (IOR) of attention to the same location, although they are microscale phenomena measured in milliseconds, seem to encapsulate the interaction between two fundamental dimensions of behavior - engaging in and sustaining activity versus withdrawing from an...

This book is designed to equip Student-Teachers and in-serviceTeachers in Universities, Colleges of Education, and otherTeacher Training Institutions with the necessary required skillsthat make a teacher competent. The book consists of sixteenchapters that explicate the rudiments of teaching, teachingmethods, application of some innovative teaching...

B a c k g r o u n d . The relevance of creating a holistic theory of personality image is realised by both practitioners working in this area and psychologists seeking to comprehend the material they have accumulated, but at the same time, it is often based on disparate concepts and facts borrowed from different psychological theories. Undoubtedly,...

The increasing complexity of the process of adolescents growing up in modern society creates conditions for the relevance of psychological research into individual variations of this process. The purpose of this study was to empirically study the personal characteristics of adolescents with different types of age-status self-awareness. Using a samp...

Recent guidelines from the WHO stress the benefits of physical activity and harm of sedentary behavior across the lifespan. Physical activity is associated with multiple positive life outcomes, both physical and psychological, across adulthood and into old age. Previous studies have shown engaging in aerobic physical activity buffers cognitive decl...

The problem of the relationship between school engagement and self-regulation of students is a topical area of modern research in the field of educational psychology. The objectives of this study include: 1) identifying individual typological groups of students depending on the rates of the behavioral, cognitive and emotional components of engageme...

Lebanese University Faculty of Arts and Humanities Section I Department of Psychology Conference Title: Labor Market and Education Curricula in Arts and Humanities Day One: Second Theme: The labor market in the disciplines of literature. Open pathways between university disciplines academically and professionally. Open pathways between univer...

Problematic Internet Use (PIU), with its adverse health outcomes, is a clinically established phenomenon that is not formally diagnosable yet. The latest PIU research reveals differential psychological mechanisms underlying two types of Internet usage: social use (like using social media, chatrooms, and others) and non-social use (like live streami...

The prediction of subject traits using brain data is an important goal in neuroscience, with relevant applications in clinical research, as well as in the study of differential psychology and cognition. While previous research has primarily focused on neuroimaging data, our focus is on the prediction of subject traits from electroencephalography (E...

In a 1955 correspondence with Bruno Klopfer, C. G. Jung described his Word Association Test as “the first feeble attempt to examine complex mental attitudes by an experimental method” and Rorschach’s inkblot test as “the most obvious development of the basic idea.” We explore what Jung may have meant by “the basic idea,” in the context of what was...

The results of the study on the generalisation of psychological characteristics of juvenile offenders with different levels of guilt awareness during their adaptation to the conditions of the educational colony are presented. Based on the theoretical analysis of the philosophical, psychological, scientific and legal literature and the study of legi...

There is a long history of academic and non-academic activism directed against those areas of social-scientific research, specifically behavior genetics and differential psychology (especially intelligence research) , that seek to understand the determinants of variation in socially significant psychological and behavioral traits and outcomes. This...

Despite the understanding that differentiation is a lifelong process crucial for psychological adaptation, there is limited knowledge regarding how parent–child differentiation in adulthood is associated with the psychological well-being of both parents and adult children. Furthermore, empirical research has yielded inconclusive results regarding w...

BACKGROUND. The effectiveness of the therapy of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) of various categories is largely related to the psychotraumatic nature of the disease and treatment, however, their social and psychological features and the need for psychological help have not been sufficiently studied. OBJECTIVE. To study the socio-psycholo...

Vocation has been studied from perspectives such as trait-factor, differential psychology, and psychometrics. These perspectives have assumed it to be the precursor of a unique and definitive career choice, resulting from matching personal characteristics with the requirements of a job. Vocation has also been conceptualized as the product of evolut...

This article is the third one in a series of works on one of the leading theories in modern differential psychology – Jung's theory of the psychological types. The works are aimed at revealing foundations of the cognitive concept of psychological types, which is being developed by the scientific team of the Department of Psychology, Moscow Internat...

p style="text-align: justify;">The focus of this article is the recently published textbook by Sofya Nartova-Bochaver "Psychology of Personality and Individual Differences", which reveals not only the current state of differential psychology which remains a topical field of science for many decades, but also indicates the prospects for its developm...

Studies have shown that there is a positive association between higher differentiation of self and fewer psychological problems (Cepukiene, 2021). Differentiation of self (DoS) emerges from one's family of origin and is said to be set during late adolescence and early adulthood. It may be the case that individuals that experience interpersonal trau...

Research ON THE EQUILIBRIUM between what is best for individuals and what is best for collectives has long been central to sociology and other social sciences (Simpson and Willer, 2015). In explaining the sources of cooperation and prosocial behavior, psychologists, behavioral economists, and biologists often focus on factors internal to the indivi...

William Stern is mostly renowned for inventing the IQ formula. However, he is also the originator of the term ‘differential psychology’ itself. His program of differential psychology synthesized population-based correlational studies as well as idiosyncratic approaches focusing on unique profiles of individuals. We argue that his approach still off...

In a psychological order "win-win-win" indicates legitimate and certain principles of governance Introduces "superego" in place of "individualism" From a psychological perspective, negotiation refers to any form of interaction in which people with different and conflicting interests communicate and discuss what steps they could take together to res...

The article approaches the epistemological question on the concept of time from an anthropological psychology perspective. The differentiation between imminent perceptions and existence beyond imminent perception has been the earliest conceptualization of time found so far in the traces of human civilizations. The research differentiated psychologi...

Despite the recognized benefits of the COVID-19 vaccination, vaccine hesitancy (VH) remains one of the biggest challenges of the mass vaccination campaign. Most studies investigating VH determinants focused on socio-demographics and direct relationships. In this study, we aimed at: 1) identifying subgroups of people differently affected by the pand...

In previous research frameworks, researchers used an everyday dilemma to test people’s altruistic versus egoistic inclination. However, there are at least three different psychological processes that could induce altruistic over egoistic decisions, i.e., stronger altruistic sensitivity, weaker egoistic sensitivity, and stronger overall action versu...

Middle school is characterized by strong emotional reactions, manifested by children at the beginning of the scholar phase or during those school years. The most common reaction that occurs in schoolchildren is anxiety, which is being manifested in different intensities due to children's particularities and the general context of their situation. S...

The aim of this study was to explore differential psychological profiles among patients with chronic pain with and without fibromyalgia, and to determine the results of the cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for pain. Thirty patients with chronic pain and 60 patients with fibromyalgia were referred to 10 weekly sessions of CBT in a general hospital...

Purpose. An empirical verification of the Hemingway’s “sad hypothesis” and study of some individual characteristics of a discourse formation in a process of short texts understanding. Methods and procedure of research. The study was based on the principle of a standardized interview, which was carried out on a random sample (103 respondents) using...

The article approaches the epistemological question on the concept of time from an anthropological psychology perspective. The differentiation between imminent perceptions and existence beyond imminent perception has been the earliest conceptualization of time found so far in the traces of human civilizations. The research differentiated psychologi...

Introduction To better understand the relationships between neurophysiology, cognitive function and psychopathology risk in adolescence there is value in identifying data-driven subgroups based on measurements of brain activity and function, and then comparing cognition and mental health between such subgroups. Methods We developed a flexible and...

Growing evidence suggests that natural environments – whether in outdoor or indoor settings – foster psychological health and physiological relaxation, indicated by increased wellbeing, reduced stress levels, and increased parasympathetic activity. Greater insight into differential psychological aspects modulating psychophysiological responses to n...

This paper represents the outcome of a multidisciplinary discussion on what works, what does not, and what can be improved, in ongoing work on biobehavioral taxonomies and their biomarkers. The authors of this paper, representing a wide spectrum of biobehavioral disciplines (clinical, developmental, differential psychology, neurophysiology, endocri...

The experience of passage of time is assumed to be a constitutive component of our subjective phenomenal experience and our everyday life that is detached from the estimation of time durations. However, our understanding of the factors contributing to passage of time experience has been mostly restricted to associated emotional and cognitive experi...

The article is devoted to the actual problem of the social cognition psychology: stereotyping as a mechanism of interpersonal perception and self-perception in the context of the biological sex of the subject and the object of social perception. The results of an empirical study of male and female auto- and heterostereotypes of young women and youn...

Behavioral decision theory argues that humans can adjust their third-party responses (e.g., punishment and compensation) to injustice by integrating unfair experiences. Typically, the mood plays an important role in such a decision-making process. However, the underlying neurocognitive bases remain largely unclear. We first employ a modified third-...

The experience of passage of time is assumed to be a constitutive component of our subjec-tive phenomenal experience and our everyday life that is detached from the estimation of time durations. However, our understanding of the factors contributing to passage of time experience has been mostly restricted to associated emotional and cognitive exper...

Through a comparative analysis of the novel of the Austrian playwright and prose writer Rudolf Hawel, and the major work on differential psychology of Otto Weininger. This article explores the ideas of both sexes and genders. Identify similarities and differences.

Eugen Bleuler coined the term 'autism' in 1908 for severely withdrawn schizophrenic patients and Leo Kanner identified autism as a disorder in 1943-the basis of how we diagnose ASD today. Nevertheless, both discovered pathological features that most probably have a much longer history. According to genetics, autism has closely to do with 16p11.2, a...

The COVID-19 pandemic is an inherently stressful situation, which may lead to adverse psychosocial outcomes in various populations. Yet, individuals may not be affected equally by stressors posed by the pandemic and those with pre-existing mental disorders could be particularly vulnerable. To test this hypothesis, we assessed the psychological resp...

The article describes an empirical study which had the task to consider the differential aspects of the relationship between conscious self-regulation, psychological well-being, and academic performance of younger students. The study sample consisted of the 4th grade students of Russian secondary schools (N=372). The study implemented three questio...

The article briefly outlines the scientific basis for the study of professional identity in historical and modern contexts and presents one aspect of the study of teachers - organizers professional identity in a recreational institution, namely the study of psychological characteristics of teachers - organizers professional identity at recreational...

We aim to differentiate psychological customer engagement from behavioral customer engagement formally. Thus, we examine the impact of psychological customer engagement on behavioral customer engagement (i.e., customer purchases, customer referrals, customer influence, and customer knowledge). To enhance the model’s explanatory power, we also explo...

This is the first review in chronopsychology, a relatively new interdisciplinary area of research which has developed rapidly at the junction of chronobiology, somnology, and psychology. Chronopsychology studies the mechanisms of rhythmicity in behavior and the mind based on methods of chronobiology, somnology, and psychometry. In particular, chron...

Introduction To better understand the relationships between brain activity, cognitive function and mental health risk in adolescence there is value in identifying data-driven subgroups based on measurements of brain activity and function, and then comparing cognition and mental health symptoms between such subgroups. Methods Here we implement a mu...

Recent research outcomes suggest that social and economic conservatism show divergent associations with external criteria. In this article we present a quantitative study with 534 Colombian participants. We found that, although positively correlated, these two dimensions of conservative ideology also exhibit suppression effects and differentiated p...

Question: Comorbidity, i.e., additional psychological distress in patients already suffering from chronic somatic diseases (e.g., orthopedic conditions) is of growing importance. The quality of analyzing and interpreting the often used Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) used with orthopedic patients should improve by employing a new “case definition” of...

Rouder and Haaf (2021, this issue) propose a focus shift toward qualitative individual differences in cognition and present a research toolkit for doing so. In this invited commentary, I will argue that the observation of qualitative individual differences may be no more than an indicator that more theoretical and empirical work needs to be done to...

In the eleventh International Classification of Diseases (ICD‐11) of the World Health Organization, gambling disorder and gaming disorder are included in the category ‘disorders due to addictive behaviours’, which can be specified further as occurring either predominantly offline or predominantly online. Other specific problematic behaviours may be...

Widely recognized in differential psychology, but less so in cognitive science, the positive manifold is the phenomena of all cognitive tests inter-correlating positively. Frequently demonstrated in people, it can also be observed in non-human species. With 217 Ecuadorian adult participants, who performed 11 cognitive tests, we show that all 55 pai...

Abstract This study aimed to explore psychological distress as a risk of mental health problems among legal entity state university's educational staff. A total of 178 educational staff from Legal Entity State University 'X' (Male=41.6%) were involved in this research. Psychological distress was measured using the General Health Questionnaire-12 (C...

The educational sector has particular sensitivities and there is a huge concern that technological innovations may interfere with the real role of education in social development. With particular reference to higher education, this educational level is the foundation for changes in society. Higher education institutions (HEIs) should shape the prer...

In a recently-featured commentary, Winston [1] defined scientific racism as “the use of scientific concepts and data to create and justify ideas of an enduring, biologically based hierarchy” [1, p. 425]. Winston further argued that scientific racism persists because of the “social genealogy and history” of the research program, rather than becaus...

Personality textbooks come in two forms, each with their own style of organizing content. They will either be organized in terms of historical affiliation (e.g., Freud and those theories that are historically affiliated with Freud, etc.) or they will offer a series of disparate research foci. Both approaches make it difficult for students to attain...

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 is challenging the dental community to an unprecedented degree. Knowledge of the increased risk of infection in dental settings has been disseminated to the public and guidelines have been formulated to assist dental attendance decision-making...

The development of performance validity testing in neuropsychology has been important in the progression of better differentiating general functional ability from lower performance related to other factors that could negatively influence the outcome of the data. This is important not only for forensic cases, but also to understand neuropsychologica...

Par le passé les conduites humaines ont été étudiées selon une approche générale ou une approche différentielle donnant lieu à des courants séparés de la psychologie, les modèles comportementaux laissent, aujourd’hui, une place de plus en plus importante aux variations inter et intra-individuelles. La psychologie différentielle longtemps restreinte...

“Cognitive creationism” is a term for ideologically based rejection of concepts from differential psychology or behavioral genetics. Various authors have compared this practice to young-Earth creationism, but the parallels between the two have not previously been subjected to an in-depth comparison, which is conducted for the first time in this pap...

Numerous technical—scientific reports have demonstrated that student performance variability is linked to several factors, especially socioeconomic factors. For a century, differential psychology has shown that students’ socioeconomic level has little or no relevance in the explanation of student performance variation when the intellectual factor i...

Drawing upon the broaden-and-build model and self-determination theory, the present study examined whether and how the fulfillment of basic psychological needs (i.e., autonomy, competence, & relatedness) might mediate the relationship between positive affectivity and distinctive positive outcomes (i.e., life satisfaction, self-esteem, & academic pe...

The article draws attention to the sphere of historical and pedagogical knowledge. Being a product of the development of human society, it lies at the core of contemporary and future pedagogical culture. The mature conventional wisdom helps people to forge their own path in the modern world, to determine their self-identification and the prospects...

The article describes Tatiana G. Stefanenko’s cooperation with teachers and students of the Social and Differential Psychology Department of the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), the most international university in Russia. The authors focus on contribution of T.G. Stefanenko’s contribution to the development of ethnopsych...

Background Intensive care unit (ICU) healthcare workers (HCWs) are at the forefront of the COVID-19 pandemic. To overcome the lack of human resources during this crisis, some ICUs had to mobilize staff from a reinforcement pool, with no or outdated ICU experience. This study aimed to investigate and to compare the psychological impact of the pandem...

Safety in high-risk and time-pressured situations relies on people’s ability to generate new and appropriate solutions to solve unforeseen problems for which no procedures or rules are available. This type of ability is regularly associated with the concept of creativity. While psychology researchers have studied, for decades, how creative ideas an...

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to changes in people’s private and public lives that are unprecedented in modern history. However, little is known about the differential psychological consequences of restrictions that have been imposed to fight the pandemic. In a large and diverse German sample (N = 1,320), we examined how individual differences in p...

The debate about the relative importance of the personality traits of presidents has a long history. Until the mid-1970s, scholars of the presidency extensively focused on the uniqueness of the individuals that held office. However, the difficulty in capturing presidential personalities and measuring their impact on executive politics led to a sign...

Psychological and cognitive studies of personality Summary Human personality is one of the most complex subjects of the scientific research. The personality can be briefly defined as the enduring pattern of relatively stable and distinctive mental, behavioral and physical characteristics of human beings. The research of personality has a wide scope...

The article analyzes the differential and integral approach to the study of human individuality. It discusses the paradox of individuality as the subject of study of differential psychology. It is concluded that differentiation and integration are necessary mechanisms for transition from the holistic «indivisibility» of the individual to the «indiv...

Background: Mothers' reports about pregnancy, maternity and their experiences during the perinatal period have been associated with infants' later quality of attachment and development. Yet, there has been little research with mothers of very preterm newborns. This study aimed to explore mothers' experiences related to pregnancy, premature birth,...

The aim of this study was to determine the strength of optimism and altruism in predicting psychological resilience. The sample consists of 389 (Female: 198, Male: 191) adult participants living in Central Anatolia. In this study, Optimism Scale, Altruism Scale, Psychological Resilience Scale and personal information form developed by the researche...

An individual-like intelligent artifact is a special kind of humanoid which resembles a human being in assimilating aspects of its real human counterpart’s cognition and neurological functions. Such an individual-like intelligent artifact could have a number of far-reaching applications, such as in creating a digital clone of an individual and brin...

In a series of four studies, I developed and found evidence supporting the validity of a new measure, the Motivation to Participate in Psychological Research Scale (MPPRS). Based upon the tenets of Self-Determination Theory and aimed at measuring motivation in undergraduate students, the scale demonstrated a three-factor structure in exploratory an...

Relevance. The article defines the first-ever directions of psychological aid for children infected with COVID-19 in “red zone” in the context of illness of close adult people. The goal of the research is psychological state of children infected with COVID-19 in “red zone” in the context of illness of close adults and determination of the required...

The article is dedicated to the 80th anniversary of the birth of Dr. habil. in Psychology, Professor A.I. Krupnov. It analyzes the continuity and achievements of scientific research on differential psychology in Russian science. Advantages of A.I. Krupnov’s psychological researches and the employees of Psychological Institute of Russian Academy of Ed...

The article reveals and summarizes various approaches to the study of the influence of modern information technologies on the worldview. The importance of addressing the study of a holistic worldview as an integral and dynamic psychological phenomenon is justified. Particular attention is paid to the concepts of computer metaphor, sociocultural pat...

Purpose of the Study: The article describes the view of the authors on the model of the implementation of a differentiated approach in the training of elementary school children. Methodology: In the research the authors identify and systematize the pedagogical requirements for ensuring the sex differentiation in the education of elementary school c...

To increase knowledge of international students' psychological well-being at U.S. universities, we examined the degree to which demographic factors, perceived language competence, and domestic student social support were associated with Ryff's (1989a, 1989b) six aspects of psychological well-being. Participants (n = 216) were undergraduate and grad...

The problem of students’ social adaptation to modern pace and style of life, norms and rules that are imposed by the society, as well as the increased relevance of victim behavior prevention in young people on the Internet determine the crucial necessity to study psychological characteristics, factors and mechanisms of victim behavior manifestation...

Purpose of the Study: The article describes the authors’ view on the model of the implementation of a differentiated approach in the training of elementary school children. Methodology: In the research, the authors identify and systematize the pedagogical requirements for ensuring the sex differentiation in education of elementary school children,...

RESUMO: A Psicologia Diferencial é um ramo da Psicologia que pode ser definido como o estudo empírico das diferenças psicológicas sejam elas intraindividuais, interindividuais e intergrupais, ou seja, dirige-se ao estudo da variabilidade psicológica (Portela, 2007). Logo, a Psicologia Diferencial distancia-se da Psicologia Geral uma vez que a Psico...

Aim: The primary aim of the study was to determine whether patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNES) have different personality profiles compared to patients with epileptic seizures (ES). The secondary aim was to determine whether any such personality differences could be used to efficiently screen for PNES in clinical settings. Backg...

The article describes some characteristics of the internal image of pregnancy in women with a possible miscarriage during a complicated pregnancy. The study involved 230 women from three groups: those with an extragenital pathology, those with an HIV infection, and those with an IVF pregnancy. The experiment employed the following psychological met...

If we trace the origins of psychology back to nineteenth century positivism, we can see that concern about measurement was a defining characteristic that was used to differentiate psychology from other social/human sciences. The dominant voices in psychology defined it as a natural science that could measure all those psychological entities that ex...

In the everyday world, the ability to solve practical problems is generally regarded as an expression of intelligence. The cognitive aspects of problem solving have long been considered as essential to any well-conceived notion of intelligence (Resnick & Glaser,1976; Sternberg, 1982). Although problem solving is an essential expression of intellige...