Current - Science topic

Yes, current density = Measured Current/ Wire Cross section area. The multimeter should be of standard company with good accuracy….

Dear Fatsah.

Here is my last article. You can find how to calculate the capistance from CV

https://scholar.google.de/scholar?oi=bibs&hl=en&cluster=3118842863766328288#d=gs_qabs&t=1666333440796&u=%23p%3D4NMNbQ9bSCsJ

Dear Dr. Vinooth Rajendran ,

I apologize but I can't understand your question easttamente; generally using the Tafel method, once the stability of the open circuit potential Eoc has been reached, the potential is changed (both in the cathodic and anodic sense, preferably with single measurements for the two polarizations, naturally on identical samples prepared for the same mode), recording the generated current density on a logarithmic scale. Then the data analysis is carried out ....

Occasionally problems may arise if we are dealing with particular materials or more banally "random" discrepancies from the normal operating protocol but, generally, this methodology is rather easy and reliable, especially if you work by comparison between different types of materials.

Allow me to suggest some documents that may be of help to you:

- Getting Started with Electrochemical Corrosion Measurement by Gamry

Available at: https://www.gamry.com/application-notes/corrosion-coatings/basics-of-electrochemical-corrosion-measurements/

- Metrohm White Paper - Fundamentals of Electrochemical Corrosion Research by Metrohm

Available at: https://www.google.it/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjxob2j8_z3AhUtSPEDHTj6BWQQFnoECBMQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fpartners.metrohm.com%2FGetDocumentPublic%3Faction%3Dget_dms_document%26docid%3D3212142&usg=AOvVaw2pE5jAZ_sWEHx0Cz1uWN71

- Tafel Plot and Evans Diagram by Palmsens

Available at: https://www.palmsens.com/knowledgebase-article/tafel-plot-and-evans-diagram/

but you can also find many others…

Good luck and my best regards, Pierluigi Traverso.

Soroush Abolfathi Thank you very much for your help, but I can't find a clear method in the guide you recommended.  Good night !

Dear François Grandpierron ,

Physically the leakage current is due to tunneling and surface conduction. It may be also due to weak thin oxide regions that may enter into early breakdown. You can consult the book S.M.Sze, the physics of semicondcutor devices. It treats in details the non ideal currents in the oxides and insulators. In the simulators there are built in models for such nonideal current. In order to use them elaborately you have to study them b referring to these models and their model parameters. It can be modeled also phenomenologically by assuming a nonlinear resistor with the characteristics I=KV ^n both n and k can be used to fit the measures curves.

Best wishes

Cyril Mechkov if you're just looking at the saturation part of the transistor an ideal transistor would saturate and this is due to the semiconductor junctions in the device. In the case of a FET pinchoff will occur and then the carriers are swept across the electric field at the drain end. This is why the current is constant. In a practical device there is some channel length modulation that makes current increase at increased VD.

Reverse saturation current terminology is generally used in diode whereas leakage current is used in BJT. But both are more or less indicates the same quantity, i.e leakage current and reverse saturation current is flowing due to the minority carriers.

Dear Mwaziby Niossi Ibondji ,

You can understand the group of equations belonging to the boundary conditions of the p+ emitter region with a thickness of t, and also of the neutral region of the n^0 boundary condition. The basic idea in the solution that one has p+ n-n+ hetero diode. One main p-n junction and one low high junction n-n+.

A space charge region will be formed around the x=t. The thickness of this region in the p-side is xp and in the n-side is xn. So there will be a quasi neutral region at the left side of this junction and also there will a neutral region in n^0 side. Th concentration of the minority carrier an non equilibrium of the both regions are np and pn respectively.

at x=0 and at x= t+d yio have a recombination interface.

Also zero bias is assumed.

So, in order to understand the relations 26 you have to refer to Fig 1 and my explanations.

The solution is similar to homojunctions.

If you have any other question please ask it!

Best wishes

You're welcome Mª Angeles Zorrilla Lopez-Perea.

I agree with you Ali Houadef sir.

Dear Raghavendra Pogaku sir,

High I_ON/I_OFF ratio can be utilised in digital applications. More the ratio, more it is suitable for digital applications.

the fixed voltage is physically more appropriate in electrophoresis experiments. Speaking about values, the rule of thumb developed ages ago is simple: use 10 to 15 V per cm of your gel. This gives about 100 V for small gels and up to 300 V for big ones.

Dear Mr. Rasheed!

This is an interesting and relevant point. I consider you refer to international scale of study. I am from Hungary, living in Finland so I looked up research focusing on Europe - I take a case-study approach: COVID-19 . Please see the methodology-sections:

1) Flaxman, S., Mishra, S., Gandy, A. et al. Estimating the effects of non-pharmaceutical interventions on COVID-19 in Europe. Nature 584, 257–261 (2020), Open Access © 2020 Springer Nature Limited Available at:

2) Engin Karadag (2020). Increase in COVID‐19 cases and case‐fatality and case‐recovery rates in Europe: A cross‐temporal meta‐analysis, Journal of Medical Virology, Volume 92, Issue 9 September 2020, Open Access © 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC Available at:

This paper focuses on different levels at the same time:

Andrew Clark PhD et al. (2020). Global, regional, and national estimates of the population at increased risk of severe COVID-19 due to underlying health conditions in 2020: a modelling study, The Lancet Global Health, Volume 8, Issue 8, August 2020, Pages e1003-e1017 Open Access © 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. Available at:

Yours sincerely, Bulcsu Szekely

Rafik Karaman

How we can calculate thermoelectric properties using gaussian 09 only?

I don't think the Joerg Fricke's answer is right as to the b) example. when driving a fast vehicle on a horizontal plane , then 50% of voltage not must results in 50% of speed . Generally the speed is a bit more than 50% of the original speed .

Answer : As the magnet approaches the ring, the distribution of the magnetic field around the ring changes. Changing the distribution of the magnetic field around the ring leads to the generation of an electric field (on the ring plate). This electric field can change the distribution of ring electrons. Changing the electrons of the ring can create an induced potential in the ring circuit. The induced potential generated in the circuit circuit generates the induced electric current in the circuit circuit. (You can track the appropriate calculations from Maxwell's equations (especially the third and fourth equations)) Hope you got the answer right.

Follow

Dear Nedan,

The drop in voltage during the OCV evolution is due to the fact that the substrate is depleting. The substrate, such as organic compounds, has been utilized by the microbes to generate electricity in MFCs. Hence, if you are using a bioelectrochemical system in a batch mode, I strongly recommend you to perform feed (substrate) injection until two sequential equal peaks in voltage are obtained. Depending on the experiment, It is impossible to say the exact time for achieving two consecutive equal peaks in voltage (It may take several days to several months).

Variable external resistances are suggested to obtain polarization and power density curves.

For more information, I suggest the following article.

Best Regards,

Dear Ioannis Samaras ,

Even the Gamry 1010 E has nominal current ranges 9 (10 nA - 1 A) , 10 nA ranges start from 1 to 10 nA. In some corrosion experiments (cyclic polarization) with stainless steel in a regular cell in 1 M H2SO4, I now obtained with Gamry a few points even in the range of 10-100 pA.

Dear Ma Du,

I suggest you to see links and attached files on topic.

Best regards

The conjugate of the current is used to calculate the correct phase difference between the voltage phasor and the current phasor.

The thin platinum wire is very brittle and snaps easily. It is very hard to work with. If you try to weld it, the solder will probably corrode from the electrical current. Platinum is used because it is virtually inert and can stand up to having current run through it without corroding. I suggest you send the gel box back to the manufacturer for repair, if they offer that service.

It depends on many factors, but generally such currents (e.g. a few pA from photodiode) can be measured.Sometimes even fA.

1. 'Cheap, quick and dirty': decent usual DMM multimeter has 10Mohm or so of input resistance in voltage mode. That means 1nA forced through it will be seen as 10mV.

2. Advanced specialized low current meters and electrometers like e.g. Keithley 6430 which has +-1pA at the lowest range:

https://www.newark.com/keithley/6430/source-meter-voltage-current-2w/dp/59T8598

3. You can assemble amplifier circuitry using electrometric opamp like

http://www.ti.com/product/LMC6001

and e.g. 10 Gohm feedback resistor.

Hi Victor,

as long as the secondary coil is open (no current) and the primary coil is connected to an AC voltage, the magnetic flux will change in such a way that the voltage induced in the primary coil according to curl E = -d B / d t nearly equals the amount of the external AC voltage, but points in the opposite direction. The remaining small voltage difference causes the current through the (resistive) primary coil which in turn causes the flux.

In a rough approximation you can assume the both coils are perfectly coupled, i. e. both are pervaded by the same flux, and as a consequence, the induced voltage per turn is the same in both.

If the secondary coil is shorted, the current in this coil is so directed that it opposes a change of the flux. Therefore the variation of the flux is much smaller, and so is the induced voltage in the primary coil. So, the difference between external voltage and induced voltage is much larger, and so is the primary current.

To look at it from another perspective: The shortened coil will be heated by the large current, and the electrical power turned into heat has to be delivered from the external voltage source; so, the primary current must increase.

Dear Sanyal

The correct input file of G09 to create .den file use the following input

#MP2/6-31G** guess=core nosym density=MP2 pop=esp cube=cards cube=frozencore

Regards

Anil

The corrosion current density proved the corrosion activity on the steel substrate. In all papers the performance evaluated via icorr.

GAPS EXIST IN SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES.

1. DCIR values (for LFP electrodes, LixFePO4), are high at both low SOC (~0%, Limx=1) and high SOC (~100%, Limx=0), because both (pure) cath. electrode materials "LiFePO4" and "FePO4" are common stoichiometric^[1] insulators, for both the mixed carriers : Li+ and e- . 2. Yes, DCIR value changes (increases) with pulse current value; it is not an error; both the carriers : Li+ and e-, are correlated with the LFP-grain's mechanical stress; this electrochemically induced mechanical stress increases along with Li-gradient, due to high(er) current pulses. Very high charge (and current) pulses might form (inside a grain) a textured locus of local stoichiometric insulators. Extremely high charge (and current) pulses might transform the open locus into closed textured locus e.g. internal islands of stress; this island results towards loosing, island by island, piece by piece, a single grain's activity. Upon cycling, and aging, we might loose, not only partially, but fully, "this" aged grain, resulting to an inactive "grain"; so, we have a grain detached from the (macroscopic) LFP electrode; this a model illuminating how a (microscopic) "grain by grain" loss results into the (macroscopic active) material's progressive loss. _{1. This is why we can form this stable (stoichiometric-LFP) electrode (not the LFP-battery) in a dry room.}

Dear Jafar,

the Tafel line is a straight line of the polarization curve in E-log(j) plot E = n+Er, where n is the overpotential and Er reversible electrode potential. So by extrapolating Tafel line to Er or n the current is exchange current, see attached graph

Gretings

You mention compliance - is this light flashing on the keithley current source? If so it means it can't supply the current you select with the given voltage compliance. On a Keithley, the compliance setting is a safety to limit the maximum voltage it will go to, to drive the current. For sure if it is flashing (depends on keithley model how it tells you), i.e. you are out of compliance then you don't have the 2nA as it can't supply the voltage required to get there. You can increase this compliance voltage to the max your device / safety can allow and then try.

maybe it will be good to use correlation CORR or XCORR functions to compare the signals

I'm also looking for the maps of exactly these two vectors. It seems people don't bother sequencing vectors, used 30 years ago, and just still use them like that, which makes no sense to me, but... Anna, have you managed to obtain them? I'd be happy if you can share them with me!

Thank you!

Theoretically, there is no maximum distance limit; however, the magnetic field decays to levels at which the mutual induction or coupling becomes very small to be considered. The corresponding value depends on quantities such as the value of the current flow. Therefore, there is no a specific general maximum distance.

It depends on the used control method. in V/F control, increasing the coil temperature will have no effect on control performance, but the rated motor power/current will be reduced. On the other hand, if the motor is controlled by vector control, the control algorithm will be affected as the orientation will be deviated. The calculated motor torque will be wrong and as a consequence, the motor dynamic performance will be slower. Therefore, most of industrial type drives are equipped with an algorithm to tune the motor resistance parameter by a direct motor winding temperature measurement using a PTC temperature sensor.

Hello Professor Bhowmick,

I would request you to kindly elaborate the question.

Thanks and Regards,

Subhanjan

With respect to neutral(ground) at zero potential....

Follow this publication, actually controller gain tunning can be converted into the error minimization or optimization problem/ first you have to develop an understanding that how you can call a simulink model in an optimization routine. i hope this link may be helpful

Hi,

May this paper help you:

Wish you luck

Dear Bouchra El Bakkouri,  

I generally agree with the information provided by Chung-San Yu.   However, I would add the following caveats that may be of assistance:

(1)   Specifically separate your data collection into perception and cognition levels, and then make sure that you also capture appropriate demographic information to separate aspects of causation for effects.   Each of these aspects is outlined in the following points.

(2)   Perception.   Remember that some aspects of perception are virtually universal, so you need to separate these out.   For example, ask questions about physical aspects such as look (e.g. salience), touch, smell, etc. (as appropriate).   Remember to keep these questions simple and to the point without blurring the lines into cognition (see below).   As an example, ask things like 'did the packaging catch your eye', or 'did you like the feel of the packaging', etc.   The key at this level is to seek the most basic sensory information, without getting the subjects to jump into cognitive aspects too early.

(3)  Cognition.   Remember that cognition is much more than just the basic perception of the products.   This is where you will need to identify whether the mixing of percepts (e.g. basic perceptual units) and the viewer's knowledge will be important.   You can delve into these aspects by asking questions like 'what did you think about'.

(4)  This separation within the preceding two points will not necessarily get complete segregation of effects, but if you are doing a survey and your questions are specifically designed to align to an analysis of your hypothesis/hypotheses this approach is likely to give you the most helpful solution.   You can also help to control variability by utilising saccade tracking information to gain insights into the perceptual level for visual tracking.   This can be very important, because the order of processing can have a profound effect on higher order processes (e.g. cognition).

(5)  In your survey try to avoid utilising binary questions (e.g. yes/no), and develop each question so they can be answered in terms of a Likert Scale.   This will give you much greater granularity of the resulting data, so you can draw more fundamental conclusions from the results.

(6)   Demographics.  Finally, make sure that your questionnaire captures key demographic information that will be pertinent to the investigation of the hypothesis.   These data should then be utilised as independent variables that can be assessed in relation to the dependent variable/s you are investigating.

I hope that this information will be of assistance.

In other research articles, authors synthesize electrode material with different techniques. So, the morphology, surface area, porosity of the materials are different for each though the active material is same. So, favourable electrolyte for the same material synthesized by others can be different, concentration too. You should go for all the electrolyte variation, and pick the best one. then concentration as I've done in my publications. that's the standard method.

check the electrolyte and then concentration, may be you can get higher capacitance. and getting low capacitance is not the issue. Journals mainly prefer ur novel ideas and concepts, not high/low value. I have attached some papers. Authors report current value in µA, and published in higher impact journals. 

so, forget about others. Do your own experimental variations and report ur results.

yes

continues..

Hello António Alberto da Silva Francisco 

please check the resources related to your topic

The good Practices for research depend of target or aim. The best way is to solidify theorical knowledge before beguin, find a hot topic reading some papers, do what you like, verify if you have all material

When at low ORR overpotentials, the reaction is controlled by the kinetics instead of mass-transfer. Therefore the increasing rotational speed, of which the purpose is to enhance the mass-transfer, has no effect on the catalytic performance, and all the RDE voltammograms start from the same point and may overlap within a narrow potential range near that point. As the overpotential goes higher, the ORR catalytic perforamnce is gradually limited by mass-transfer (i.e. oxygen diffusion to reach the electrode surface); thus the higher the rotational speed is, the higher the diffusion limiting current is.

It is firmly dependent on your system. If you have a large number of the inductor in the system the current would not help you to consider the current harmonic for your aim. In contrast, if you have filter capacitors in the system, voltage feedback cannot help you to follow the system harmonic. Therefore, your sensor location is so important to forecast harmonics by prediction algorithms. It seems better to use a current sensor in series with the capacitor filter to analyze the voltage harmonics in a system. 

good greeting:

Adult education is a type of education characterized by four characteristics:

1 - It is voluntary, organized by the learners of their own choice, it is in most countries of the world is not mandatory, and the experience of many countries to the failure to impose and impose sanctions in adult education.

2. It is an education in which the regularists are not fully discharged; they organize for some time.

3. It is an education organized and funded by various institutions, governmental and non-governmental.

4 - It is an education in which it is organized beyond the age of basic compulsory education, and within the framework of this education, illiteracy education literacy and numeracy.

Adult Education Styles:

Adult education patterns vary according to the following considerations:

1. The level of individuals or groups that serve them. These categories begin with children who have not been accommodated by schools in compulsory education, who have dropped out of primary education after joining them for various reasons, or illiterate persons who have missed educational opportunities. These categories are then expanded to include those who are involved in vocational training programs, and employees in different sectors of employment, in the form of programs for revitalization, renewal or transfer training. This vertical division ends with those who enroll in graduate programs.

2. The needs of the groups it serves may be a literacy and numeracy program, health awareness, agricultural extension, maternity or childhood care, building skills training or nursing skills, and may be a social program intended to raise social awareness To individuals, and motivate them to participate in improving conditions at the workplace, in the family or in society at large.

3 - In accordance with the quality of the institutions and services that provide services; where we find a large number of institutions, adult education is its main task, or part of its core functions, and enters into these institutions: departments of community service in universities, vocational training departments in various ministries (defense, , Agriculture, social affairs, industry), training centers in industrial and commercial enterprises, labor universities, labor culture institutions, trade unions, and popular institutions such as charities and child and mothercare centers.

Objectives and functions:

The objectives of adult education and its functions vary according to the political, historical, economic, cultural, educational and technical conditions that exist in each society and according to the future aspirations of individuals. The society aspires to achieve them in various professions, jobs and trades. This means that there are no agreed goals and functions for adult education. However, a review of modern literature in adult education points to three basic functions that adults must undertake in any location and in any field:

1. Self-criticism, in the sense that adult education goes to those who organize it, to know the strengths and weaknesses in the performance of his role, in the family, in the workplace, and in society.

2. Self-management, in the sense that adult education provides the people with knowledge and skills, the type of relationships with the self and with others, and with the tools and devices that enable them to perform the roles assigned to them in a way that belongs to them and to the group they work with. The benefits they had achieved before the program, and carry out their tasks with self-motivation, based on understanding and trying to improve self.

3. Self-preservation in a social context. In the sense that the great knows his duties and seeks to perform them, and knows his rights and the rights of others, he is keen to meet them by means of legitimate democracy, which helped him to maintain his individual and social self.

Introduction to Adult Education:

With regard to this complex mixture of adult education patterns, it is difficult to talk about specific approaches to adult education, because of the different groups in which they are organized, the different programs directed to them, whatever category of adult education is directed, and the different programs, Any adult education entrance must meet the following requirements:

1. The design of the program, the identification of its contents and the selection of means of delivery shall take into account the impact of mental and social maturity and previous experiences of adults. Therefore, those who transfer knowledge and methods of education in the field of education of young people to the field of adult education make a grave error of adults bored, and push them to drop out of education.

2. The program should establish in its objectives, contents and procedures a documented knowledge of the needs of learners: cognitive, emotional, and social skills, and that the program aims to satisfy adult tendencies, respond to their concerns, strengthen their positive perception of themselves and focus on the strengths of the learners rather than on the manifestations of disability and inadequacy. They have.

3. At the beginning of the program, adults feel that they are achieving immediate and immediate goals. It may be useful in educating the illiterate - for example in the first meetings of the program - to teach them how to write their names. Short and multiple, success in the early stages of the success to greater and deeper in the next stages.

4 - Adopt in the education of adults to exploit their mental and social potential, and their experience in life and work, and this requires that the essence of education on the actual activity of adults in learning, which means that the program is flexible, and not imposed on them, Depending on feedback from adult views and their practice in learning.

Adult Education Methods:

The choice of the way in which adults are taught depends on the goals and contents of education, the cognitive, cultural, social, occupational and psychological levels of adults.

thanks a lot Dr. Muthanna Al-Sarray

You are welcome.  Good luck.

You could consider to follow the journal Psychological Assessment (http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/pas/). You will find many answers here.

To complement Pete's answer, this article was published later and provides an updated approach based on geostatistics:

The IDL codes for those algorithms are provided here:

And here you can find an R package that interfaces the IDL code as well as most Landsat preprocessing steps:

The major amount of power consumed by a magnetic stirrer is for heating, as the heating elements consists of only pure resistance, the operating power factor can be taken as one and hence the power consumed will be P=V*I*(1) watts.

Dear Colleagues,

Good Day,

hi Leila

this error could be due to divergence or very slow convergence or using user subroutine UMAT with some mistakes.

explain more about your model, so may be able to help you

regards

Thank you for your great reply, Mr. White.

If i increased the metal strip by half wavelength then the size would become large, the slot is very good option bu what the shape do you think that realize current reversing?

I'm thinking about introducing a short-circuited TL at the desired location to reflect current by 180degree, but the problem is how to introduce such short circuit on a CPW configuration!!!!

Ferrocene in Acetonitrile solution. But why would the basic physics of edge diffusion change with the electrolyte?

Thank you for the response. Great help!

I think that you could get useful data from one or more drogues, with the investigator in a kayak with GPS.  You can use a large watermelon as a drogue; its diameter will be a significant fraction of the 70-cm depth.  You can attach enough weight at one end of the watermelon to make it float long-end-down.  Attach small flags of different colors to identify individual drogues.  To take a position reading, stealthily get the kayak close to a drogue and obtain time and horizontal position over the course of a passage through or past the oyster farm.  Repeat as needed for a variety of tide phases or current strengths.

I do not believe. Things are pretty clear.

Few research avenues (randomly listed) for a CS guy,

- SLAM (Simultaneous Localization & Mapping)

- Navigation, path planning & collision avoidance algos. for Wheeled Mobile Robots (WMRs)

- Artificial Neural Network (ANN)/Artificial Intelligence (AI) based control strategies for robotic manipulators

- Modelling & Simulation side of humanoid robots (e.g. their Balancing, Walking and most challenging running over an uneven terrain)

 To have a flavor for novel and up-to-date research, I suggest to see the papers published in following conferences/Journals (particularly during the last 2-3 years)

- IEEE ICRA

- IEEE IROS

- IEEE Robotics Letters

- IEEE Transactions on Robotics, Mechatronics, Automatic Control, Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering, ...

Where there is a will, there is a way :) I hope it helps. Good luck and Prayers.

thanks the chapter 2 of this book is good.

Sustainable Use of Land and

Water under Rainfed and

Defi cit Irrigation Conditions in

Ogun-Osun River Basin, Nigeria

Galvanostatic intermittent titration technique (GITT) results in the same ideal^[1] capacity of a LIB. So, the (GITT-)capacity is the reference value for a new electrode system.

I think it would be beneficial, to the extent of habitat heterogeneity. Higher biodiversity leads to greater stability of community structure.

The problem is not simply "foreign interventions" but military equipment that sustains African regimes that are unsavory.  Here is one example: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/two-thirds-of-african-countries-now-using-chinese-military-equipment-a6905286.html  

thanks for your help Budolla and Jai...

Regards

you have to select based on E. you have to give the maximum and minimum E value for discharge and charge respectively. The current should be put depending on your active electrode amount. typically range from 1 A/g to 20 A/g. for eg if your electrode amount is 2 mg.then you have to put 2 mA for getting 1 A/g current density. read some review articles and tutorial review articles. 

Actually I need to find a simple material which could be coated easily on large sufaces, be a good photoemitter in sunlight and be stable in the air, at least for a few days or so. I need to be able to emit currents larger than 1mA/cm² , the photocathode is working in vacuum.

My confusion comes from the following fact: I don't know if photoemission is affected by the fact that the material is submersed in a liquid (normally it could be).  I've seen in some publications that CuO can be used as a photoemitter in a photochemical cell (having a good efficiency and being more stable than Cs compounds etc.) and I wanted to know if it could also work efficiently in vacuum.

If you could help me with some information I'll be very grateful.

It could be parasitic capacitance, which prevents you from reaching the same current at high frequencies that you can attain at DC or low frequencies.

An easy testing methode which is used in ceramics and refracories industry is the measurement of the cold crushing stength. This is an ISO-Norm standard test for this kind of products. Hope this answer will help.

Kind regards

Read more articles related to the subject

Yes, the RMS value depend on wave form.

In this case, you can no longer use the formula RMS = Amax/sqrt (2). This one is only valid for sinus wave form.

To calculate RMS in this case, use the standard formular

Xrms = sqrt [(x1^2 + x2^2 +... + xn^2)/n]