Cold Temperature - Science topic

Dear Kaushik Shandilya and Alvena Shahid thankyou for giving your precious time to answer...

Hello Vahid Safavizadeh ,

According to the textbook by Lehninger [1], a majority of proteins denature when heated in excess of 50-60°C, and some denature if cooled under 10-15°C. As far as which treatment, heating or cooling, is most irreversible, the answer is which ever treatment destroys the primary structure of the protein. Normally that would be heating since if you heat a protein to a high enough temperature to decompose it, then that is an irreversible change. Surprisingly, treatments - usually chemical - that break the disulfide bonds and disrupt the hydrogen bonding of the protein's primary structure were shown by Christian Anfinsen (shared the 1972 Nobel prize in chemistry) to be, many times, completely reversible [2].

Of course, the rules about thermal treatments of proteins mentioned by Lehninger have many exceptions when you consider more complicated structures such as spores (resistant to heat, cold, and probably radiation), organisms that live in extreme environments, etc.

[1] Albert L. Lehninger; Biochemistry, The Molecular Basis of Cell Structure and Function; Worth Publishers, Inc.; 1970; p. 59.

[2] David Dressler, Huntington Potter; Discovering Enzymes; Scientific American Library; 1991; pp. 148-149.

Regards,

Thomas Cuff

Dear Sir. You ask many questions which, as a professor you perhaps already know the answer to. May I recommend Google Scholar and Wikipedia, I feel reasonably sure they are available in your country. Good luck!

Warmer water temperatures delay ice growth in the fall and winter, and the ice melts faster the following spring, exposing dark ocean waters for a longer period the following summer. Changes in the amount of sea ice can disrupt normal ocean circulation, thereby leading to changes in global climate.In addition to keeping sunlight out, sea ice traps existing heat in the ocean, keeping it from warming the air above. “The ability of the ice to keep heat in the ocean depends not only on its extent, but also on its thickness,” Tilling said. Every year, some ice survives the summer melt. The melting ice causes freshwater to be added to the seawater in the Arctic Ocean which flows into the North Atlantic. The added freshwater makes the seawater less dense. This has caused the North Atlantic to become fresher over the past several decades and has caused the currents to slow. Sea ice helps regulate exchanges of heat, moisture, and salinity in the polar oceans. It insulates the relatively warm ocean water from the cold polar atmosphere except where cracks, or leads, in the ice allow exchange of heat and water vapor from ocean to atmosphere in winter. Ocean currents can be caused by wind, density differences in water masses caused by temperature and salinity variations, gravity, and events such as earthquakes or storms. Currents are cohesive streams of seawater that circulate through the ocean. Ocean currents act much like a conveyor belt, transporting warm water and precipitation from the equator toward the poles and cold water from the poles back to the tropics. Thus, ocean currents regulate global climate, helping to counteract the uneven distribution of solar radiation reaching Earth's surface. Ocean currents act as conveyer belts of warm and cold water, sending heat toward the Polar Regions and helping tropical areas cool off. The world's ocean is crucial to heating the planet. While land areas and the atmosphere absorb some sunlight, the majority of the sun's radiation is absorbed by the ocean. Cold-water currents tend to have a cooling effect on the continental coastlines they border, while warm-water currents tend to have a warming effect. They move water at temperatures at odds with the air above. This displaced water affects the air, by warming or cooling it. Thereby transferring the same effect to the land when the air blows across it. This is how ocean currents affect climate.

thanks alot

Distinguishing between symptoms caused by the coronavirus (such as in COVID-19) and those resulting from other common viral respiratory infections (like the flu or common cold) can be challenging, primarily because there is considerable overlap in the symptoms. However, there are certain characteristics and nuances that can help in differentiating them to some extent:

### 1. **Symptom Onset**:

- **Coronavirus (COVID-19)**: The onset of symptoms is typically gradual. Symptoms often start mild and progressively worsen over a few days.

- **Common Cold/Flu**: Symptoms of common colds usually develop quickly but are generally milder compared to flu or COVID-19. The flu often begins abruptly.

### 2. **Fever**:

- **Coronavirus**: Fever is a common symptom but not universal. It is usually high and can be persistent.

- **Common Cold**: Rarely causes fever in adults, though it's more common in children.

- **Flu**: Fever is common and typically higher and more sudden than in COVID-19.

### 3. **Cough**:

- **Coronavirus**: Cough is often dry and can be severe.

- **Common Cold**: Cough is milder and often accompanied by a runny or stuffy nose.

- **Flu**: Cough is usually dry and can be severe.

### 4. **Additional Symptoms**:

- **Coronavirus**:

- Loss of taste or smell is a distinctive symptom that is more specific to COVID-19.

- Shortness of breath or difficulty breathing is more commonly observed and can be severe.

- Fatigue, body aches, sore throat, headache, and gastrointestinal symptoms are also reported.

- **Common Cold**:

- More likely to cause sneezing, runny or stuffy nose.

- Sore throat and mild body aches can occur.

- **Flu**:

- Sudden onset of symptoms like high fever, severe body aches, fatigue, and weakness.

- Some gastrointestinal symptoms can occur, but they are more common in children.

### 5. **Severity and Progression**:

- **Coronavirus**: Can range from asymptomatic to severe respiratory distress and complications. Higher risk of severe illness in older adults and those with underlying health conditions.

- **Common Cold/Flu**: Generally, these lead to milder disease compared to COVID-19, but the flu can be severe in some cases, especially in vulnerable populations.

### 6. **Duration**:

- **Coronavirus**: Symptoms can last longer and may persist for weeks in severe cases.

- **Common Cold**: Usually resolves within 7-10 days.

- **Flu**: Symptoms can last 5-7 days, though fatigue may persist longer.

### Conclusion

While these differences can provide guidance, it's important to note that there is substantial overlap in symptoms among these viral infections. The presence of unique symptoms like loss of taste or smell, the pattern of symptom progression, and the severity can offer clues, but definitive diagnosis often requires specific testing, such as RT-PCR for COVID-19. During periods when COVID-19 is prevalent, it's prudent to assume such symptoms could be due to coronavirus infection and seek medical advice and testing as appropriate.

l This protocol list might provide further insights to address this issue.

Rubina Munir noted I will share the paper with you. thank you again !!

Yakubu Lawal

Well; the deduction (in the former replies) that your concern is (by epidemiology) to be near Kano, Katsina or even Kaduna, is precisely the case. That’s quite a pinpoint deduction considering the vast size and variety of Nigeria (we hope you agree). Would you please consider mentionning if you are studying a generality (for Nigeria) or a pseudo-cluster (epidemic for Bauchi) or an individual case? It matters not if it’s something “rare” or only one patient. We’re very interested in helping if you may share it.

Europe is saturated in glycoalkaloid and Rheumatoid Arthritis while in Africa you may have the best opportunity to detect the very start of any (or all) of the NCDs that are “new” or never seen before.

My work is based on the facts of potato and eggplant glycoalkaloids having been underestimated (in Europe). South America gave very serious warnings (about the toxic tubers and their subtle idiosyncratic poisonings; effectively identifying them as a failed project of domestication from their point of view). Denmark heeded the warnings precisely because the originators lacked any ulterior motive to praise or promote the tubers nor even to pass them off as inoffensive, rather firm that they were/are dangerous. In the extreme, in Ukraine, some use the potato to suicide. The toxic tubers were banned for human consumption in Denmark until the pressure of war in 1914. There’s nothing traditional about it in Europe (although there is marketing inertia). There’s nothing superstitious about it either (although some pressure keeps leaking from Europe into the United Nations to shut down any objective examination of the tuber’s dubious history).

Nigeria. GEZ (Germany) are recommending another push since 2021, called the “Potato Revolution for Bauchi”. It’s a common feature (in Africa) with only one advice, to “just cut off the green bits”. This is simply not good enough. The German Food and Safety office did note (to the EFSA) that modern cross-breeding of potatoes suppresses any and all green tints. Advice from the 1920s was (according to ITT research) false in the first place and now irrelevant. The point is that where farmers attempt potato and then industrialists learn (from their efforts) that the tuber will grow at all, there’s always pressure to attempt to profit from it (for export in the case of East Africa).

Admittedly this response may seem terse yet in favour of some new medical point of view concerning human health. Much more likely to occur in Africa because the arrival of glycoalkaloids to market is “new” or within a few recent generations in certain zones.

If your examination concerns something seen since a long time with historical confirmation, then glycoalkaloids may merit a sharp look because they’re also in these particular plants too:

Solanum Nigrum (glycoalkaloid Solasodine; boiled to extract/remove)

Solanium Marcrocarpon, Gboma, Akwukwo Anara (Igbo), Efo Igbo (Yoruba), Ganyen Gauta (Hausa) or “Garden Egg Leaf”.

For a full list (for Azare), Albashir Tahir (Bauchi State University) knows the topic and the experts.

If your examination concerns something recent and unexpected then Aubergines/Eggplants or Potato promotion may be a much more likely “new” local contemporary cause.

Note concerning your original question: The medical colleagues who’ve noticed the indications of Latitude and Sunshine also measure a conflict in the data concerning all NCDs, particularly in Scandinavia. In the meantime we hope to advise that they’re actually noticing the zones where potatoes are planted, either because of abundant water, irrigation, suitable soil and potato growing or where nothing else will, then consumed with high Fatty Acid foods, so causing the highest chemical pathogen rates. Although usually in colder climes, that’s no longer the case when a short season well watered is “targetted” (to use the Finland Crop Research project terms about Tanzania).

Here, our future report (partly endocrinology) will cover the subject and all at proof level. However, those such as in the team of Professor Juraj Sepčić (also on Researchgate) preferred to study the epidemic or cluster (in Croatia) using the standard Odds Ratio method to catch the cause as soon as possible. Then it’s objective, in the field of epidemic and free of opinion or delay.

Please let me know your thoughts. By the way I’m a signal processing Engineer (studying metabolism and epidemiological data furnished by the University of Washington compared with basic nutritional supplies data from the United Nations FAO). It's support expertise, without a doctorate in medicine. Yours sincerely, Matthew.

Hi Jorji Siegmundt , I've run into the same problem. Did you ever find a solution?

The ideal gas law states that the pressure of a gas is proportional to its density and temperature. So, as we go up in altitude, the pressure decreases, the density decreases, and the temperature decreases. This is why the top of a mountain is cold even though it is closer to the sun. This hot air can indeed rise. But as it does, the atmospheric pressure decreases, the air expands, and it cools. So, even though they're closer to the sun, thin air in the mountains keeps them colder than the thicker air in the lowlands surrounding them. With increasing altitude or altitude, the temperature decreases. The height of the mountains is much higher than that of the plains, and their temperature is lower than that of the plains. The atmosphere is warmed by radiation from below the earth. Therefore, the lower floors are warmer than the upper floors.During July (at aphelion), the northern half of our planet tilts toward the sun, heating up the land, which warms up easier than the oceans. During January, it's harder for the sun to heat the oceans, resulting in cooler average global temperatures, even though the Earth is closer to the sun. During the winter, the sun's rays hit the Earth at a shallow angle. These rays are more spread out, which minimizes the amount of energy that hits any given spot. Also, the long nights and short days prevent the Earth from warming up. The temperature gets colder the higher up the mountain you go. This is because as the altitude increases, the air becomes thinner and is less able to absorb and retain heat. The cooler the temperature the less evaporation there is, so there is more moisture in the air too. In the free atmosphere, the air's density decreases as the air is heated. Pressure has the opposite effect on air density. Increasing the pressure increases the density. Pressure = height of the column × density of the liquid × gravitational field strength p = h ρ g (In any calculation the value of the gravitational field strength (g) will be given.) p=p0+ρhg, Where p is the pressure at a particular depth, p0 is the pressure of the atmosphere, ρ is the density of the fluid, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the depth. The pressure exerted by a liquid depends on the height of the liquid column. Pressure can be written as P = ρ g h where h is height and ρ is density. The formula shows the direct relation between the pressure and height of the column. Therefore, as the height increases, pressure will also increase. So the height is inversely proportional to the density of the fluid ρ. In this case, since pressure is constant, height is inversely proportional to density of the liquid.

The degree of crystallinity of a sample can be determined from its DSC heating curve by calculating the enthalpy of fusion (Hm) and comparing it to the enthalpy of fusion of a 100% crystalline sample (Hm0). The degree of crystallinity is then calculated using the following equation:

Degree of crystallinity (%) = Hm / Hm0 * 100%

The enthalpy of fusion is calculated by integrating the area under the melting peak on the DSC heating curve. In the heating curve you provided, the melting peak is the sharp peak at around 165°C. To calculate the enthalpy of fusion, you would need to integrate the area under this peak from the onset to the end of melting.

It is difficult to say for sure whether your area is correct without seeing the entire DSC heating curve. However, based on the image you provided, it appears that you have integrated the area under the melting peak correctly.

The peak before the melting peak is likely due to cold crystallization. Cold crystallization is a process where polymer chains that have not crystallized during cooling crystallize during heating. The enthalpy of cold crystallization is typically much smaller than the enthalpy of melting. Therefore, you can usually ignore the peak before the melting peak when calculating the degree of crystallinity.

Yes, the peak before the melting peak in your DSC heating curve is likely due to cold crystallization.

R M C S Ratnayake

Hedyotis or Hediyotis??

It is Hedyotis quinquinervia Thwaites of Rubiaceae family.

Thanks!

hi. it will be solved simultaneously

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But because the Earth rotates, circulating air is deflected. Instead of circulating in a straight pattern, the air deflects toward the right in the Northern Hemisphere and toward the left in the Southern Hemisphere, resulting in curved paths. This deflection is called the Coriolis effect. During the day, air above land heats up faster than air above water. Warm air above land expands and rises, and heavier, cooler air rushes in to take its place, creating wind. At night, the winds are reversed because air cools more rapidly over land than it does over water.The Coriolis Effect, an offshoot of the Earth's rotation, makes moving air masses curve, so that the winds converging on the Equator come from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere. These winds are called the trade winds. Rising air expands and cools (adiabatic cooling: that is, it cools due to change in volume as opposed to adding or taking away of heat). The result is condensation/precipitation. Cold air sinks and sinking air compresses and heats. Air rises at the equator and sinks at the poles, creating a single convection cell in each hemisphere. The prevailing winds moving over the Earth's surface blow from the poles towards the equator in both hemispheres. Convection works by areas of a liquid or gas heating or cooling greater than their surroundings, causing differences in temperature. These temperature differences then cause the areas to move as the hotter, less dense areas rise, and the cooler, denser areas sink. The western coast of India receives very high rainfall in summer mainly due to the Western Ghats. Due to the greater width of the mountains, the rain-bearing winds have to necessarily travel a longer distance and have more time for the drops to coalesce and precipitate as rainfall, resulting in higher rainfall. The western coastal plain lies on the windward side of the south west monsoon winds thus bringing orographic rainfall to it. Winds from the Arabian Sea ascend from 900 to 1200 m up the slopes of the Western Ghats. They soon become cool and as a result, very heavy rainfall ranging from 250 cm to 400 cm occurs on the windward side of the Western Ghats. Monsoon winds from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea are responsible for monsoons in India. It is also known as Southwest Monsoon winds. These winds are responsible for the majority of rainfall in the country.

Global warming affects the Polar Regions more than other parts of the world. In the past 30 years, temperatures in the Arctic have risen about twice as much as average temperatures on Earth. Temperatures are rising so quickly that the Arctic could have no summer sea ice by 2035. Climate change is amplified in the Polar Regions. The northern and southern reaches of the planet are warming faster than any area on Earth, with the Arctic Ocean and air temperatures rising twice as much as elsewhere. Both the Arctic (North Pole) and the Antarctic (South Pole) are very cold because they get very little direct sunlight. The Sun is always low on the horizon, even in the middle of summer. In winter, the Sun is so far below the horizon that it doesn't come up at all for months at a time. The Polar Regions influence the global climate through a number of processes. As spring snow and summer sea ice cover decrease, more heat is absorbed at the surface. There is growing evidence that ongoing changes in the Arctic, primarily sea ice loss, can potentially influence mid-latitude weather. Temperature decreases progressively from equator towards the poles because it receives less sunlight. As we go away from equator the temperature decreases and in poles it becomes very little or none. As the darkest natural surface on the planet, the ocean absorbs 90 percent of solar radiation. When covered with sea ice, the Arctic Ocean acts like a large reflective blanket, reducing the absorption of solar radiation.Europe and the Arctic are warming fastest, but there are many more people in parts of the Middle East, India, and East Asia that may also warm faster than the rest of the globe. As the planet grows warmer because of climate change, it will not happen evenly. The earth's largest land masses and its north and south poles are warming the fastest, mainly because of differences in how these areas reflect energy from the sun. Rapidly rising Arctic temperatures are driven by a range of processes, including the “surface albedo feedback”, in which melting sea ice uncovers the darker water beneath. This reflects less of the sun's rays back into space, allowing further warming and melting. This is because the air high up in the atmosphere is below freezing. In the simplest terms when the temperature at the ground is less than 32 degrees, the snow will stay snow and when the temperature is above 32 degrees, the snow will begin to melt and fall as rain. The cool air temperature freezes precipitation, and snow falls instead of rain. The cold air also cools that ground so that, when snow falls, it is more likely to accumulate than to melt. At temperatures above about −40 °C (−40 °F), ice crystals form around minute particles of dust or chemical substances that float in the air; at lower temperatures, crystals form directly from water vapour. If the air is humid, the crystals tend to grow rapidly, develop branches, and clump together to form snowflakes. Snowflakes are just collections of ice crystals that cling to each other as they fall toward the ground. Precipitation continues to fall as snow when the temperature remains at or below 32 degrees F from the cloud base to the ground.

You could lyophilize the mixed solution TFA-ether that contains the peptide.

Divergence occurs when horizontal winds cause a net outflow of air from a region (more air leaving a vertical column of air than entering), while convergence occurs when horizontal winds cause a net inflow of air into a region. Speed divergence is cause by winds rapidly increasing speed downstream on the pressure surface. High wind speeds will pull mass out of an area faster than it can be replaced by the slower wind speeds, thus decreasing the mass. Speed Convergence is caused by winds rapidly decreasing speed downstream.Speed divergence is cause by winds rapidly increasing speed downstream on the pressure surface. High wind speeds will pull mass out of an area faster than it can be replaced by the slower wind speeds, thus decreasing the mass. Speed Convergence is caused by winds rapidly decreasing speed downstream. The terms are usually used to refer specifically to the horizontal inflow or outflow of air. The convergence of horizontal winds causes air to rise, whereas the divergence of horizontal winds causes downward motion of the air. Speed Convergence is caused by winds rapidly decreasing speed downstream. The higher wind speeds push mass into an area faster than it can be removed by the slower wind speeds, thus increasing the mass. Wind direction and speed will offset each other on constant pressure charts.Divergence generally means two things are moving apart while convergence implies that two forces are moving together. In the world of economics, finance, and trading, divergence and convergence are terms used to describe the directional relationship of two trends, prices, or indicators. The warm air that has travelled up from the equator converges with the cold air at 60° of latitude that has travelled down from the polar regions. As the air converges the warm air is forced to rise and move back towards the equator. The overall effect of the Polar cell is to move cold air towards the equator. Convection currents are the result of differential heating. Lighter (less dense), warm material rises while heavier (more dense) cool material sinks. It is this movement that creates circulation patterns known as convection currents in the atmosphere, in water, and in the mantle of Earth. Convection works when a liquid or gas is unevenly heated. Hot liquids (and gases) are less dense and rise, causing. The warmer section of the material will rise while the cooler part sinks. This creates a current of warmer material going up and a current of cooler material going down. When air moving along the surface of the Earth is confronted by a mountain, it is forced up and over the mountain, cooling as it rises. If the air cools to its saturation point, the water vapor condenses and a cloud forms.

We have a patent over this process in Brazil BR102012013327(B1) see at espacenet.com

ABSTRACT BR102012013327A2

CRYSTALLIZATION OF XYLITOL IN WATER-ETHANOL USING XYLITOL AND SILICA (NANOPARTICULATE) PYROGENIC AS SEED, belonging to the sector of saturated compounds having hydroxyl groups attached to acyclic carbon atoms, in the form of acyclic polyhydroxy alcohols, consists of a xylitol crystallization process contained in a water-ethanol mixture through crystallization induced by heterogeneous primary nucleation, having fumed silica (nanoparticulate) as seed. The field of application and objective of this invention consists in the recovery of xylitol obtained by any means of production, and the invention consists in the application or use of fumed silica (nanoparticulate) with crystals of 5 to 7 nm in the formation of crystals with heterogeneous nuclei, aiming at the more efficient crystallization of xylitol in saturated solution. In the process "CRYSTALIZATION OF XYLITOL IN WATER-ETHANOL USING XYLITOL AND (NANOPARTICULATE) PYROGENIC SILICA AS SEED", for nucleation, grains (nanometric) of fumed silica are used in the crystallization process by cooling, using the initial saturation temperature of xylitol and a cooling speed that facilitate the formation of xylitol crystals in the solution.

The answer depends upon your experimental endpoints. Ice-cold would generally be preferred if phosphorylation measurements will be taken, and is slightly better in terms of preserving nucleotides, but only marginally. It should be noted that some receptors and extracellular proteins are heat-sensitive (e.g. CD62L, IgM) and may be better preserved in membrane with cold PBS.

Room temperature (or 37 degrees) may be preferred in situations requiring rapid ex-vivo tissue transfer. Furthermore, temperature between RT and 37ºC will result in the least response by vasculature in terms of diameter, and may be preferred in situations wherein microvasculature is critical to clear. Think about it: you're changing less, so there will be less response.

This said, ice cold PBS is specified by most labs in most situations, so unless you're seeing suboptimal outcomes directly attributable to temperature, you'd be safe sticking to cold.

I think this is because during the transfer, the current is too large to reach the maximum current of the electrophoresis power supply, so the voltage can not be increased. You can try precooling the transfer buffer (containing 20% methanol) in a -20 ° C refrigerator.

Dew, frozen dew, and frost are all related to the presence of moisture in the atmosphere and the cooling of surfaces. Let's explore how each of them becomes visible:

In summary, dew, frozen dew, and frost are all visible due to the condensation or direct transition of water vapor into liquid droplets (dew) or solid ice crystals (frozen dew and frost) on surfaces when the temperature drops below the dew point or freezing point, respectively. These phenomena occur in specific weather conditions and add to the beauty of the natural world, often providing captivating views early in the morning.

I don't think it is result of any extra weight on snow. I guess it could be some mineral from the ground oozing or precipitating and forming such shapes as in the case of stalagmites.

Kristaq Hazizi please check this out

Anju,

At the risk of stating the obvious, you can either;

a) Heat the flat face of the chamber

b) Tolerate the fact that you'll get deposition where you want it least

c) Improve the collimation of the beam (arrange baffles around the source)

When hot water is mixed with cold water, the mixture attains an intermediate temperature because heat flows from higher temperature to lower temperature. When cold water is poured over hot water, cold water being denser flows to the bottom mixing with the hot water in the process and getting heated up. When two pure substances mix under normal conditions there is usually an increase in the entropy of the system. This is qualitatively easily visualized in terms of the increased disorder brought about by mixing. Mixing the two bodies of water has the same effect as the heat transfer of energy from the higher-temperature substance to the lower-temperature substance. The mixing decreases the entropy of the hotter water but increases the entropy of the colder water by a greater amount, producing an overall increase in entropy. So generally a mixture will have higher entropy. Before mixing, the solute and solvent are completely separated from each other. After mixing, they are completely interspersed within each other. Thus, the entropy increases. Entropy usually decreases when a gas dissolves in a liquid or solid. Energy from hot water molecules makes solids more soluble. In hot water, molecules are moving around more, so there are more collisions between the water molecules and a solid. Hot and cold water are made of the same type of molecules. Each molecule has one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms. The difference between them is the speed of the molecules jiggling around.

Shehzaib Yousuf Khan Thanks

The temperature of the region touches to 48 degrees Celsius. The city displays extreme weather conditions in both summers and winters. The temperature here in winters dips as low as 0 degrees Celsius.Thermal difference between land and water: Land surfaces have a lower heat capacity than water surfaces, which means they heat up and cool down more quickly than water. As a result, the temperature range in the interior of the continents is high as compared to coastal areas.

Large bodies of water, such as oceans, seas and large lakes, can affect the climate of an area. Water heats and cools more slowly than landmasses. Therefore, the coastal regions will stay cooler in summer and warmer in winter, thus creating a more moderate climate with a narrower temperature range. Since the sea doesn't get too hot or cold, the air above the sea also doesn't get too hot or cold. Therefore places near the sea usually have temperatures that remain fairly constant throughout the year. They have what is known as a moderate climate. Even on a very hot day, people in coastal areas do not feel very hot because the seawater takes longer time to become hot as compared to land so the people feel less hot.

The six controls that affect the climate of India are latitude, altitude, pressure and wind system, ocean currents, distance from the sea and relief features. During the winter season, the northern part of India experiences extreme winter due to snowfall in its neighboring territories. It is affected by cold waves brought about by sea waves from the West and effect of the moisture-laden waves from the Mediterranean.

The sea doesn't get too hot or cold, the air above the sea also doesn't get too hot or cold. Therefore places near the sea usually have temperatures that remain fairly constant throughout the year. They have what is known as a moderate climate. Due to a lack of humidity in deserts, the air cannot hold the heat radiated by the sand, which gets heated during the sunny daytime hours. This causes the temperature of deserts to fall rapidly at night.

As such, sand gets heated or cooled more rapidly as compared to water under the similar conditions. Thus a large difference in temperature is developed between the land and the sea due to which land and sea breezes are formed. These breezes make the climate near the sea shore moderate. The sea air keeps things warmer at night and cooler during the day. This is because of the atmospheric mixing and local winds that are created. The last idea is one of big ocean currents. Large amounts of heat and energy move every day by the force of the wind acting on the ocean.

During the winter season, the northern part of India experiences extreme winter due to snowfall in its neighboring territories. It is affected by cold waves brought about by sea waves from the West and effect of the moisture-laden waves from the Mediterranean. Sea Level Rise (SLR) - It is a major impact on coastal regions that cause a combination of risks in retreat, submersion, erosion, and increased vulnerability to extreme marine events.

"Hot water expands so it is less dense than room temperature water. Cold water contracts so it is more dense than room temperature water. The red hot water rises and the blue cold water sinks."

Mixing the two bodies of water has the same effect as the heat transfer of energy from the higher-temperature substance to the lower-temperature substance. The mixing decreases the entropy of the hotter water but increases the entropy of the colder water by a greater amount, producing an overall increase in entropy. When two pure substances mix under normal conditions there is usually an increase in the entropy of the system. This is qualitatively easily visualized in terms of the increased disorder brought about by mixing. When hot water is mixed with cold water, the mixture attains an intermediate temperature because heat flows from higher temperature to lower temperature. When cold water is poured over hot water, cold water being denser flows to the bottom mixing with the hot water in the process and getting heated up. In thermodynamics, the entropy of mixing is the increase in the total entropy when several initially separate systems of different composition, each in a thermodynamic state of internal equilibrium, are mixed without chemical reaction by the thermodynamic operation of removal of impermeable partition(s).

Mixing the two bodies of water has the same effect as the heat transfer of energy from the higher-temperature substance to the lower-temperature substance. The mixing decreases the entropy of the hotter water but increases the entropy of the colder water by a greater amount, producing an overall increase in entropy. When two pure substances mix under normal conditions there is usually an increase in the entropy of the system. This is qualitatively easily visualized in terms of the increased disorder brought about by mixing. When hot water is mixed with cold water, the mixture attains an intermediate temperature because heat flows from higher temperature to lower temperature. When cold water is poured over hot water, cold water being denser flows to the bottom mixing with the hot water in the process and getting heated up. In thermodynamics, the entropy of mixing is the increase in the total entropy when several initially separate systems of different composition, each in a thermodynamic state of internal equilibrium, are mixed without chemical reaction by the thermodynamic operation of removal of impermeable partition(s).

When the two liquids are mixed together, heat rejected from the liquid with the higher temperature will be absorbed by the liquid with the lower temperature. So we can say that the energy is conserved during the mixing of these two liquids. When two cups of cold water of the same temperature are mixed, the water will be twice as cold. Thermometers are used for measuring heat. The temperature of iced water at 0 °C will go down when more ice is added. When two liquids or gases are in the same container, the random motion of their molecules makes them mingle together until the mixture is the same throughout.

Metamorphic rocks, Meta meaning change and morphos meaning form, are one of the three rock categories in the rock cycle. Metamorphic rock material has been changed by temperature, pressure, and/or fluids. Igneous rocks are also says volcanic rocks. They cool from magma slowly in the crust. If a sedimentary rock is subjected to intense heat it will melt. Once it rises up and cools down, it will form an igneous rock.

Dr Naresh,

Again, were you serious with your first question?

You seem to have answered it by yourself.

ResearchGate 'questions' is a place for people to ask questions honestly.

Is it not?

Changes in temperature cause rock to expand (with heat) and contract (with cold). As this happens over and over again, the structure of the rock weakens. Over time, it crumbles. Water can get into cracks in a rock and, if it freezes, the ice will expand and push the cracks apart. When the ice melts, more water can get into the larger crack; if it freezes again it expands and can make the crack even bigger.

Do not rely on ChatGPT to do your literature searching for you. It was not designed to be an authoritative source of information, and it is well-recognized that it often provides erroneous information. You would be better off using a search engine to find references, and then reading the references.

Acetone will precipitate proteins. Whether it precipitates small metabolites depends on the nature of the metabolites.

An easy way to remove macromolecules while retaining low molecular weight, soluble metabolites is to use an ultrafiltration device. Molecules larger than the molecular weight cutoff will be retained by the filter and small molecules will pass through.

You can concentrate the small-molecule filtrate by freeze-drying with a lyophilizer or Speed-Vac. Bear in mind that non-volatile salts will also be concentrated by freeze-drying.

Another way to dry down small-volume samples is to gently blow nitrogen gas over them while warming them in the hand, or using a device designed for this purpose.

Dr Alain Robichaud thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Rainfall and temperature can affect the rate in which rocks weather. High temperatures and greater rainfall increase the rate of chemical weathering and rocks in tropical regions exposed to abundant rainfall and hot temperatures weather much faster than similar rocks residing in cold, dry regions. Physical weathering is the most common type of weathering in dry and cold climates. So how do different climates influence weathering? A cold, dry climate will produce the lowest rate of weathering. A warm, wet climate will produce the highest rate of weathering. The warmer a climate is, the more types of vegetation it will have and the greater the rate of biological weathering. The slowest rates of weathering occur in hot, dry climates. The lack of water limits many weathering processes, such as carbonation and ice wedging. Weathering is also slow in very cold climates.

High temperatures and greater rainfall increase the rate of chemical weathering and rocks in tropical regions exposed to abundant rainfall and hot temperatures weather much faster than similar rocks residing in cold, dry regions. The more water present, the faster weathering occurs. Temperature is also important. Warmer temperatures promote faster reactions, so chemical weathering is more effective in warm climates. Thus, warm, humid climates tend to have the most rapid weathering. As a potent greenhouse gas, atmospheric carbon dioxide also traps heat from the sun. And a warmer Earth increases the rate of chemical weathering both by causing more rainfall and by speeding up the chemical reactions between rainwater and rock. Chemical weathering increases as: Temperature increases: Chemical reactions proceed more rapidly at higher temperatures. For each 10 degrees C increase in average temperature, the rate of chemical reactions doubles. Precipitation increases: More water allows more chemical reactions. Climate and surface are two of the many factors that influence the rate of chemical reaction and weathering in rocks. The climate includes the amount of rainfall and atmospheric temperature. Moisture speeds up chemical weathering. Weathering occurs fastest in hot, wet climates. It occurs very slowly in hot and dry climates. Chemical weathering typically increases as temperatures rise and rain falls, which means rocks in hot and wet climates experience faster rates of chemical weathering than do rocks in cold, dry climates. Chemical weathering occurs more rapidly in warm, wet climates, and mechanical weathering occurs more in cold climates. Mechanical weathering occurs more rapidly in warm, wet climates, and chemical weathering occurs more in cold climates. Moisture speeds up chemical weathering. So, weathering occurs fastest in hot, wet climates. Weathering occurs much more slowly in hot, dry climates. In very cold, dry areas, there is very little weathering.

I started from the fact that the term viscoelasticity is an oxymoron masking that energy has two terms, one represents mechanical energy which by definition is elastic, i.e. reversible, and the other which has both properties to be able to remain stored and relaxe with temperature jump. To say "properly measured" introduces an assumption contrary to reality. Loss and viscous mean the same thing and G"/G' is difficult to interpret because both vary in different ways depending on the transformation. You say the classic things very clearly. Only this vision does not lead to a equation of state and does not explain the mechanisms of damage By comparing all the observations made under various stresses, we understand the effects of losses on instabilities, we discover the factors that result from this and enter into an equation of state. Experimental techniques are very different from real practices. I cannot go into more detailed explanations. If you are interested in exploring these comments in more detail, I would link you to a site that develops them.

Good day

Claude

Himadri is the northernmost range of the Himalayan that is covered throughout the year as it's always covered with snow. It is the northernmost range of Himalayan which is also called the inner Himalayas which also include the most prominent peak of the Himalayan Mountain. The moisture for snowfall in this part of the range is delivered primarily by the summer monsoon. The mountains form a natural barrier that blocks monsoonal moisture from reaching the Tibetan Plateau to the north. This is because most of the peaks in the Himalayas are situated above the snow line which is between 5000 to 5700 meters in the Himalaya. The climate snow line is the point above which snow and ice cover the ground throughout the year. The Himalayas are mountains are cold due to higher altitude. Himadri is the northernmost range of the Himalayan that is covered throughout the year as it's always covered with snow. It is the northernmost range of Himalayan which is also called the inner Himalayas which also include the most prominent peak of the Himalayan Mountain. As air rises, the pressure decreases. It is this lower pressure at higher altitudes that causes the temperature to be colder on top of a mountain than at sea level. High altitudes have lower atmospheric pressure as compared to the plains. Low atmospheric pressure contributes to low temperature. Therefore, high altitude areas have low temperature when compared to the plains.

A warm, wet climate will produce the highest rate of weathering. The warmer a climate is, the more types of vegetation it will have and the greater the rate of biological weathering. This happens because plants and bacteria grow and multiply faster in warmer temperatures. High temperatures and greater rainfall increase the rate of chemical weathering and rocks in tropical regions exposed to abundant rainfall and hot temperatures weather much faster than similar rocks residing in cold, dry regions. Chemical weathering occurs more rapidly in warm, wet climates, and mechanical weathering occurs more in cold climates. Chemical weathering typically increases as temperatures rise and rain falls, which means rocks in hot and wet climates experience faster rates of chemical weathering than do rocks in cold, dry climates. Water is the main agent of weathering, and lack of water slows weathering. Precipitation occurs in deserts, only less than in other climatic regions. Chemical weathering proceeds more slowly in deserts compared to more humid climates because of the lack of water. These chemical processes need water, and occur more rapidly at higher temperature, so warm, damp climates are best. Chemical weathering is the first stage in the production of soils. Water and temperature are key factors controlling both weathering rates and the types of weathering that occur: Water is required for chemical weathering reactions to occur. Chemical weathering proceeds more slowly in deserts compared to more humid climates because of the lack of water. Even mechanical weathering is slowed, because of a lack of runoff and even a lack of moisture to perform ice wedging. Chemical weathering is a gradual and ongoing process as the mineralogy of the rock adjusts to the near-surface environment. Secondary minerals develop from the original primary minerals of the rock. In this the processes oxidation and hydrolysis are the most frequent chemical processes that take place. Moisture speeds up chemical weathering. Weathering occurs fastest in hot, wet climates. It occurs very slowly in hot and dry climates. Deserts have little soil because moisture is so low and the rate of chemical weathering is slow. Recall that chemical weathering is responsible for the formation of soils Bedrock commonly occurs at the surface.

Dear Dr Lei Ming Ma thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Sand cannot hold the heat. It acts like a mirror to the sun. During the daytime, it stays warm, and when the Sun is absent it loses all its heat making the nights colder. There's nothing in the desert that can either absorb heat from the sun or hold it on the surface when the sun is set. .Because the air in the desert is so dry, heat departs quickly at night, and the temperature can vary dramatically from day tonight. Dry climates promote rapid chemical weathering and wet climate provide good conditions for physical or mechanical weathering. A location with a dry surface will tend to have larger temperature differences between day and night compared to a location with a wetter surface. Wet surfaces tend to stay cooler during the day because much of the sun's energy is used to evaporate water, rather than heat the surface.

Fungal and bacterial growth rates had optimum temperatures around 25-30 degrees C, while at higher temperatures lower values were found. Bacteria can live in hotter and colder temperatures than humans, but they do best in a warm, moist, protein-rich environment that is pH neutral or slightly acidic. There are exceptions, however. Some bacteria thrive in extreme heat or cold, while others can survive under highly acidic or extremely salty conditions. Food poisoning bacteria grow best at temperatures between 5°C and 60°C. This is called the Temperature Danger Zone. Keeping potentially hazardous foods cold (below 5°C) or hot (above 60°C) stops the bacteria from growing. The psychrophiles are the cold lovers, with an optimum of 15oC or lower and a growth range of -20oC to 20oC. Most of these microbes are found in the oceans, where the temperature is often 5oC or colder. They can also be found in the Arctic and the Antarctic, living in ice wherever they can find pockets of liquid water.Mesophiles grow best at moderate temperatures in the range of 20 °C to about 45 °C. Pathogens are usually mesophiles. Microorganisms that grow above 55 °C and below 20 °C are called thermophiles and psychrophiles, respectively, the remainder being called mesophiles. Extreme thermophiles, also called hyperthermophiles, can tolerate and thrive above 80 °C.

Some bacteria thrive in extreme heat or cold, while others can survive under highly acidic or extremely salty conditions. Water expands as it freezes, and the resultant pressure causes the cell to burst. Bacteria can live in hotter and colder temperatures than humans, but they do best in a warm, moist, protein-rich environment that is pH neutral or slightly acidic. There are exceptions, however. Even if a cell manages to remain intact as it freezes, the cell membrane can still be punctured by microscopic ice crystals as the organism thaws out. To protect themselves from these effects, many microbes produce antifreeze proteins. The low temperatures cause a delay in chemical reactions in food, which results in slowing down or causing bacteria to become dormant. The bacteria are still alive but they stop growing or producing toxins so in effect pausing reactions. Some of these microbes were found to have adapted in special ways to survive in the snow and ice. These microbes are called psychrophiles, which means “cold-loving” in Greek. Psychrophiles are largely bacteria but can also include other microbes. Microbes cannot survive in solid ice. Water expands as it freezes, and the resultant pressure causes the cell to burst. Even if a cell manages to remain intact as it freezes, the cell membrane can still be punctured by microscopic ice crystals as the organism thaws out. To protect themselves from these effects, many microbes produce antifreeze proteins. Most bacteria thrive at 40 to 140 degrees Fahrenheit, which is why it's important to keep food refrigerated or cook it at high temperatures. Freezing temperatures don't kill germs, but it makes them dormant until they are thawed. Among the bacteria that can tolerate extreme cold are Arthrobacter sp., Psychrobacter sp. and members of the genera Halomonas, Pseudomonas, Hyphomonas, and Sphingomonas. Another example is Chryseobacterium greenlandensis, a psychrophile that was found in 120,000-year-old ice.

Clostridium paradoxum, Bacillus, Sulfurovum, Epsilonproteobacteria, etc., are some of the examples of extremophile bacteria. Extremophiles that survive under extremely high-temperature conditions, as found in hot springs or geothermal vents, are known as extreme thermophiles. Cold shock proteins aid the bacteria to survive in temperatures lesser than the optimum temperature and the heat shock proteins make bacteria survive in temperatures greater than the optimum growth temperature. This is achieved due to organization of prokaryotic nuclei and condensation of chromosomes. Pyrococcus furious is a microbe that is found in extreme hot climatic conditions and is isolated from shallow submarine hot springs. They have metabolically adapted themselves to grow at 100℃ or more. Bacteria can survive in extremely cold environments with the help of cold shock proteins. They produce a diverse group of enzymes and proteins which help them overcome the adversity. They produce both "Heat Shock" and "Cold Shock" proteins which protect the bacterial cell from extreme heat and cold respectively. Bacteria can live in hotter and colder temperatures than humans, but they do best in a warm, moist, protein-rich environment that is pH neutral or slightly acidic. There are exceptions, however. Some bacteria thrive in extreme heat or cold, while others can survive under highly acidic or extremely salty conditions. Among bacteria, the best adapted group to various extreme conditions is the cyanobacteria. They often form microbial mats with other bacteria, from Antarctic ice to continental hot springs. Bacteria grow most rapidly in the range of temperatures between 40 °F and 140 °F, doubling in number in as little as 20 minutes. This range of temperatures is often called the "Danger Zone." Psychrophiles grow best in the temperature range of 0–15 °C whereas psychrotrophs thrive between 4°C and 25 °C. Mesophiles grow best at moderate temperatures in the range of 20 °C to about 45 °C. Pathogens are usually mesophiles. Thermophiles and hyperthemophiles are adapted to life at temperatures above 50 °C.

Earth rotates around its axis. In June, when the Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward the sun, the sun's rays hit it for a greater part of the day than in winter. This means it gets more hours of daylight. In December, when the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away from the sun, with fewer hours of daylight. Seasons are reversed in northern and southern hemispheres due to revolution as when the Earth comes near the Sun, the North Pole experiences summer season and at the same time the South Pole experiences winter season. The same goes when the South Pole comes near the sun and vice - versa. This is because they are on opposite sides of our planet. The earth tilting toward the Sun makes summer, and tilting away from the Sun makes winter. Explanation: Both the Northern and Southern Hemisphere experience opposite season. This happens because, as the earth rotates around the sun, it is tilted or leans to one side. This causes one hemisphere to be closer to the sun while the opposite hemisphere faces away. The hemisphere facing the sun experiences summer while the hemisphere facing away from the sun experiences winter. The seasons in Earth's Northern Hemisphere are always opposite those in the Southern Hemisphere. This means that at the northern summer solstice, North America will experience summer, and winter will start in the Southern Hemisphere. Around December 21, the Northern Hemisphere tilts the farthest away from the Sun.

Most living organisms cannot survive at temperature above 45°C because very high temperature causes denaturation of their enzymes. But certain bacteria, cyanobacteria, shelled protozoans, etc. are known to survive even in thermal springs. Thermophiles heat-loving organisms, optimum growth temperature is 55-65°C. Thermophiles can be found in hot springs, compost heaps, and hot water heaters. hyperthermophiles: love extreme heat, optimum growth temperature is 70-110°C. Members of this group are generally Archaea. The optimum temperature for the survival of the bacterium is about 45o C. Some of the microbes like bacteria and archaebacteria can survive in high-temperature zones. These organisms are known as thermophiles which can tolerate the temperature of about 100oC. Aerobic organisms are those that can only live in the presence of oxygen. They are also called aerobes. Not only animals and plants are aerobic; several microorganisms are also aerobic, meaning they need oxygen for their survival. Psychrophiles are microorganisms that can grow at 0 °C and below, have an optimum growth temperature close to 15 °C, and usually do not survive at temperatures above 20 °C. They are found in permanently cold environments such as the deep waters of the oceans.

The more air molecules in once space, the denser the air. As air gets warmer, the air molecules have more energy. All these hot, energized molecules will move around everywhere, increasing the speed of the air, losing density. Since the molecules are going off everywhere, the air becomes less dense. As the molecules heat and move faster, they are moving apart. So air, like most other substances, expands when heated and contracts when cooled. Because there is more space between the molecules, the air is less dense than the surrounding matter and the hot air floats upward. Hot air rises because when you heat air it expands. When the air expands, it becomes less dense than the air around it. The less dense hot air then floats above the denser cold air much like wood floats on water because wood is less dense than water. When air is heated, kinetic energy of air molecules increases and the average distance between then increases. Hence, air expands and becomes less dense than the air around it. Therefore, we can say that the warm air is lighter than cold air. That's because there's less air pressure at higher altitudes, and lower pressure makes that rising bubble of hot air expand. The more your air expands, due to low air pressure, the colder it gets. Greater activity of the heated molecules increases the spacing between neighboring molecules and thus reduces air density. The decreasing air density then lowers the pressure exerted by the air. Warm air is thus lighter than cold air and consequently exerts less pressure. The cold temperatures in the Polar Regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure. It is just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone. Since cold air is denser than warm air cold air masses are associated with lower pressure at a given height in upper levels of the atmosphere. Cold air is denser; therefore it has a higher pressure. Warm air is less dense and has a lower pressure associated with it.

During the summer, the sun's rays hit the Earth at a steep angle. The light does not spread out as much, thus increasing the amount of energy hitting any given spot. Also, the long daylight hours allow the Earth plenty of time to reach warm temperatures. Regions of earth are colder in the winter because the tilt of the earth causes the sunlight to be spread over a larger area and therefore be weaker per unit area in these regions.“In the right winter weather conditions, you can sustain sun damage just as easily as during the summer.” UVB rays, the main cause of sunburn, are the strongest in the summer. However, UVB rays can burn and damage your skin year-round, especially at high altitudes and on reflective surfaces such as snow or ice. Near the south pole and the north pole, the sun is always very low in the sky, and the sunlight always comes in at a very low angle. As a result, the poles are generally very cold. In contrast, near the equator, the sun is always high in the sky around noon and the sunlight is very direct. This is because the Southern Hemisphere has significantly more ocean and much less land; water heats up and cools down more slowly than land. The differences are also attributed to oceanic heat transfer and differing extents of greenhouse trapping.

The more massive a black hole, the colder it is. Stellar black holes are very cold: they have a temperature of nearly absolute zero – which is zero Kelvin, or −273.15 degrees Celsius. Nor are temperatures below freezing conducive to life: cells will rupture if the water they contain freezes. Most organisms are not able to maintain a body temperature that is significantly different from that of the environment. White holes are theoretical cosmic regions that function in the opposite way to black holes. Just as nothing can escape a black hole, nothing can enter a white hole. White holes were long thought to be a figment of general relativity born from the same equations as their collapsed star brethren, black holes. One black hole called GRS 1915+105, in the constellation Aquila (The Eagle) about 35,000 light-years from Earth, is spinning more than 950 times per second. Black holes have two parts. There is the event horizon, which you can think of as the surface, though it's simply the point where the gravity gets too strong for anything to escape. And then, at the center, is the singularity. That's the word we use to describe a point that is infinitely small and infinitely dense.

Bacteria can survive in extremely cold environments with the help of cold shock proteins. Deinococcus radiodurans is a bacterium that can survive in extremely cold environments. They synthesize special proteins that help them survive in extreme conditions. Some species also have special antifreeze proteins that attach to any forming ice crystals and lower their freezing point, preventing their growth. These strategies reduce the danger of living in the cold. Psychrophiles also have enzymes that are different from those of non-psychrophile bacteria. Adaptations of bacteria to survive in these harsh conditions are: Endospore formation bacteria develop protective layer outside the cell. It is covered by thick spore coat. These help in bearing adverse conditions like high temperature, drought, and starvation. Protein that helps these organisms form a protective, lipid-linked cellular membrane a key to withstanding extremely highly acidic habitats

Mesophiles grow best at moderate temperatures, i.e. 20 and 45 °C, which are not too hot and not too cold. The term mesophile generally applies to microorganisms. Bacteria, in particular, may be classified into thermophilic, mesophilic, and psychrophilic. Mesophiles are microorganisms which grow at moderate temperatures between 20 °C and 45 °C and with an optimum growth temperature in the range of 30–39 °C. They are isolated in both soil and water environments; species are found in the Bacteria, Eukarya, and Archaea kingdom. These bacteria can grow at temperatures between 5°C and 60°C, which is known as the temperature danger zone. The fastest rate of growth is at around 37°C, the temperature of the human body. Psychrophiles are extremophilic bacteria or archaeawhich are cold-loving having an optimal temperature for growth at about 15°C or lower, a maximal temperature for growth at about 20°C and a minimal temperature for growth at 0°C or lower. Thermophilesare heat-loving, with an optimum growth temperature of 50o or more, a maximum of up to 70oC or more, and a minimum of about 20oC. Thermophiles can survive at high temperatures, whereas other bacteria or archaea would be damaged and sometimes killed if exposed to the same temperatures. The enzymes in thermophiles function at high temperatures. Archaeais the main group to thrive in extreme environments. Some bacteria thrive in extreme heat or cold, while others can survive under highly acidic or extremely salty conditions. Most bacteria that cause disease grow fastest in the temperature range between 41 and 135 degrees F, which as the danger zone.

The main reason for the scorching heat in the northern parts of the country is lack of rainfall. During the winter season, the northern part of India experiences extreme winter due to snowfall in its neighboring territories. It is affected by cold waves brought about by sea waves from the West.

Near the equator, the sun's rays hit Earth at close to a 90-degree angle. This means that the sun's energy is concentrated within a small surface area. On Earth, this results in warm temperatures at the equator. At higher latitudes, the angle that the sun's rays hit Earth is lower due to Earth's curved shape. At the equator, the Sun's rays are most direct. This is where temperatures are highest. At higher latitudes, the Sun's rays are less direct. The farther an area is from the equator, the lower its temperature. The tropics are warm all year, averaging 25 to 28 degrees Celsius. This is because the tropics get more exposure to the sun. Because of all that sun, the tropics don't experience the kind of seasons the rest of Earth does. In general, the farther from the equator an area is, the colder and snowier it will be. This is because higher-latitude regions receive less light and energy from the Sun than low-latitude, tropical areas. Cold environments cover one quarter of the Earth's land surface they are found at high-latitudes where cold, sinking air generates freezing winds and sunlight is limited. In the Southern Hemisphere it is the continent of Antarctica, which is a landmass covered in ice and is home to the South Pole.

The cold temperature helps precipitate the RNA molecules during the extraction. If you used room temperature, then the yield is lower.

High-altitude locations are usually much colder than areas closer to sea level. This is due to the low air pressure. Air expands as it rises, and the fewer gas molecules including nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide have fewer chances to bump into each other. Because the angle of radiation varies depending on the latitude, surface temperatures on average are warmer at lower latitudes and cooler at higher latitudes. Due to the curvature of the earth, the amount of solar energy received varies according to latitude. As a result, air temperature generally decreases from the equator towards the poles. As one goes from the surface of the earth to higher altitudes, the atmosphere becomes less dense and temperature decreases. Low latitudes are those locations found between the Equator (0 degrees N/S) and 30 degrees N/S. The middle latitudes are found between 30 degrees N/S and 60 degrees N/S. And the high latitudes are found between 60 degrees N/S and the poles (90 degrees N/S). Temperature increases as you gain altitude in the stratosphere and the thermosphere. Temperature decreases as you gain altitude in the troposphere and mesosphere. Air temperature varies in complicated ways with altitude. Therefore, northern Scandinavia and Siberia, experience very long, cold winters with little precipitation. Subarctic climates are also called boreal climates or taiga. The two polar climate types, tundra and ice cap, lie within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles near the North and South Poles. High-latitude regions (between 60 and 90 degrees latitude in the northern and southern hemispheres) are very cold with low humidity. These Polar Regions behave in complex ways due to the strong interactions between ocean, atmosphere, land, sea ice, land ice, and associated ecosystems. Relatively small variations in radiation balance during the year, and also due to the change in latitude, are typical for the radiation regime of inter-tropical latitudes. This is one of the reasons that the annual air temperature range is very low in these latitudes.

Siachen Glacier, the highest point in India and the coldest place on Earth in a non-polar zone, is situated in the northern Karakoram range at a height of 5,753 metres. As a result, the area may experience lows of – 50 degrees Celsius in January. The temperature stays around – 10 degrees Celsius in the summer. A remote area in Antarctica has been identified as the "coldest place on Earth." According to NASA, the temperatures in the East Antarctic Plateau can dip to a bone-chilling -136° F (-93.3° C). Both the Arctic (North Pole) and the Antarctic (South Pole) are very cold because they get very little direct sunlight. The Sun is always low on the horizon, even in the middle of summer. In winter, the Sun is so far below the horizon that it doesn't come up at all for months at a time. Dra s titled the coldest place in India and the second coldest inhabited place in the country, Dras is located at Kargil town in Ladakh. Located at an altitude of 3280 meters above sea level is also known as the 'Gateway to Ladakh. During the winter season, the northern part of India experiences extreme winter due to snowfall in its neighboring territories. It is affected by cold waves brought about by sea waves from the West. Antarctica entices travelers from all over the world, each looking for a unique and unforgettable experience. Swimming in Antarctica is certainly one of them! The natural beauty and array of activities on this icy continent are enough to indulge the senses of even the most avid traveler.

Cold stress severely curbs the physiological and biochemical reactions in the plant cell, which results in leaf chlorosis, wilting, and even necrosis of plant cells. Plants respond to cold temperatures by activating metabolic pathways that protect their cells from cold and freezing conditions. One protection strategy is to accumulate sugars, which decreases the temperature at which ice forms, similar to the effect of putting salt on roads. Chilling can delay crop blooming, cause direct damage, or reduce plant vigor. Light freeze - 29° to 32° Fahrenheit will kill tender plants. Moderate freeze - 25° to 28° Fahrenheit is widely destructive to most vegetation. Severe or hard freeze - 25° Fahrenheit and colder causes heavy damage to most plants. Plants are killed in winter by frost as there is desiccation and mechanical damage to the tissues. Desiccation is the state of extreme dryness, or the process of extreme drying. Because the enzymes driving biochemical reactions don't function well in winter, dipping temperatures and lack of sunlight slows plants' metabolism. Photosynthesis and respiration decelerate, and growth halts. There are any number of adoptions plants have developed to survive sub-freezing temperatures, and probably the first that comes to mind is dormancy. Dormancy is an adaptation used by many plants to conserve resources and survive winter weather extremes by entering in to a period of rest or metabolic inactivity. Low temperature affects several aspects of crop growth viz., survival, cell division, photosynthesis, water transport, growth and finally yield. If the plants grown in hot temperature are exposed to low temperature, they will be killed (or) severely injured. When the temperature drops below 0ºC (frost), the environmental condition becomes critical for the development of the physiological processes of plants and their tissues, which can be severely damaged by freezing. Thus, plants should generally be grown at warm temperatures of 70°F to 75°F to avoid excessively long production times. By growing cold-sensitive crops at warm temperatures, you can actually reduce the amount of energy used for heating on a per-crop basis than if they were grown at cooler temperatures. Colder weather can decrease plant enzyme activity. This then disrupts plant nutrient intake because plants secrete enzymes to digest surrounding materials for soil. Consequently, this can stunt growth or more severely cause them to die. Farmers are finding ways to grow vegetables during the cold months and they're doing so with large unheated hoop houses, heated greenhouses, or small “low tunnels.” These structures provide farmers with an attractive environment protected from snow, frost, wind, and excess rain, and allow the grower. The main limiting factor at this time of year is sunlight. While temperature is also a factor, you can address these using greenhouses, cold frames, cloches, and row covers. A good benchmark to remember is that if your winter temperatures routinely drop below 25 F (- 4 C), you'll need protection the plants.

You can give SAR coherence for snow cover mapping a try.

Keep the Ice cold methanol precipitant (with PHA & chloroform) inside the freezer for 10 days. You will be able to observe visible precipitations!

FTIR and RAMAN to get data

Polymer chains lose mobility at low temperatures, which gives them a more solid-like appearance similar to a gel. The difference is that this gel is not chemically crosslinked, so you may break it by reheating or a strong shear field (mixing). Once you crosslink the acrylic functional groups, you may no longer revert it back to a liquid. Or more precisely, you can only do that by breaking the covalent bonds, which usually requires either strong chemical agents or very high temperatures.

Hi all, thanks for your answer.

Alina Wiener did you manage to carry out your experiment?

"Frigidzone Medicine" is an interdisciplinary field of study that encompasses several research areas related to the effects of cold on human physiological and pathological processes. It likely contains the following content areas:

Overall, Frigidzone Medicine is a broad and interdisciplinary field that seeks to understand and treat the effects of cold temperatures on human health and performance.

A commonly used method is UV irradiance spectroscopy. For example, see the paper:

The choice of -80°C as a freezer temperature for long-term storage of biological samples is a widely accepted standard that has been empirically established through many years of research and experience. It is believed to ensure that biological samples remain stable over time and that molecular activities, such as oxidative stress, are minimized.

While increasing the freezer temperature to -70°C may save energy, it is not recommended as it can potentially result in the degradation of biological samples over time. At -70°C, some cellular processes, such as oxidation and enzymatic activity, can still occur, although at a slower rate compared to warmer temperatures. However, it is important to keep in mind that the stability of biological samples depends on many factors, including the type of sample, the storage conditions, and the length of time in storage.

If you are considering changing the freezer temperature, it is recommended to perform a risk assessment to determine the potential impact on your samples. You can consider running a pilot study to assess the stability of a representative subset of your samples stored at -70°C over a period of time, and then comparing the results to samples stored at -80°C. You may also want to consult with experts in the field, such as cryobiologists or biorepository managers, for advice and guidance.

Dear Maryam,

To make a rubber mold for use in a wet bag cold isostatic press, the following steps can be followed:

Note: The above steps are general guidelines and may vary depending on the specifics of your project and the materials being used. It is recommended to consult with a specialist in rubber molding or a manufacturer of wet bag cold isostatic presses for more specific guidance.

I hope this helped.

Yours sincerely,

Edgar M Cambaza

Borys Kapochkin The Mistral is a chilly, dry wind that sweeps over the Mediterranean area, notably in France, from the northwest to the southeast. It is a downslope wind, which means it blows from the mountains down to the sea.

Because it does not occur in the same way as a Föhn wind, the Mistral is not a warm mountain wind (Föhn). When moist, chilly air on the windward side of the mountains is lifted and chilled, causing the moisture to condense and create clouds, a Föhn wind sweeps down the leeward side of the mountains. Due to adiabatic heating, the air drops on the leeward side of the mountains and heats.

The Mistral, on the other hand, is created by the lifting and cooling of wet air across a mountain range. The pressure differential between a high-pressure system over the Atlantic Ocean and a low-pressure system over the Mediterranean Sea is what causes it. As the high-pressure system advances eastward, winds blow from the northwest to the southeast, bringing cold, dry air from the continent's core to the shore.

As a result, the Mistral is not a warm mountain wind (Föhn) since it is produced by different physical processes than a Föhn wind.