Climate Change - Science topic

Jack Broughton

Think "tired" is an interesting observation. A month from posting and none of the typical shallow, hand wringing comments of doom. Perhaps even the virtue signalers have tired of the subject.

Yes, fossil fuel combustion and wildfires add heat to the atmosphere, while greenhouse gases slow down the rate that heat leaves the atmosphere. Both, therefore, can contribute to warming. However, there is a large difference in how important these mechanisms are.

"The contribution of waste heat to the global climate is 0.028 W/m2. In contrast, the contribution from human greenhouse gases is 2.9 W/m2. Greenhouse warming is adding about 100 times more heat to our climate than waste heat." <-- That's the top-line summary from https://skepticalscience.com/waste-heat-global-warming.htm

Your question also asked about the heat from fires, which I'm interpreting to mean wildfires. I haven’t seen a calculation of that, but let’s try for a ballpark number. In 2021, a “hot” year for wildfires, CO2 emissions from wildfires were ~20% of the CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion (details below). If we make the assumption that heat emissions are directly proportional to CO2 emissions, then we’d increase the 0.028 W/m2 of waste heat from fossil fuel combustion by 20% to give 0.034 W/m2 of heat from fossil fuel combustion + wildfires.

That number (0.034 W/m2) is still much, much smaller than the amount of heat being trapped by greenhouse gases (2.9 W/m2). It’s certainly not zero, but the suggestion that heat from combustion exceeds the heat trapped by greenhouse gases isn’t supported by the global data that I’ve seen.

Details and data for estimating wildfire heat emissions.

• 36.85 Gt CO2 from fossil fuel combustion in 2021 (from GlobalCarbonAtlas.org)

• 7.65 Gt CO2 from wildfires (based on 2021 emissions from wildfires in boreal forests at 1.76 Gt CO2 and boreal fires being 23% of global total in 2021, from https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ade0805)

• 7.65/36.85 = wildfire CO2 emissions were 20.7% of fossil fuel CO2 emissions in 2021

• If waste heat from fossil fuels has caused 0.028 W/m2 of radiative forcing, then wildfires would cause 0.0058 W/m2 of forcing (=0.028 * .207), assuming that CO2 emissions and heat production are directly proportional.

Yes, humans and wild animals face new challenges for survival because of climate change. More frequent and intense drought, storms, heat waves, rising sea levels, melting glaciers and warming oceans can directly harm animals, destroy the places they live, and wreak havoc on people's livelihoods and communities. Climate change also alters the life cycles of plants and animals. As temperatures get warmer, many plants are starting to grow and bloom earlier in the spring and survive longer into the fall. Some animals are waking from hibernation sooner or migrating at different times, too. Some animals might adapt or move elsewhere, but others could have trouble surviving. Climate change also alters plants' and animals' life cycles. As some flowers are blooming earlier in the spring, while some animals are migrating at different times. Many places have experienced changes in rainfall, resulting in more floods, droughts, or intense rain, as well as more frequent and severe heat waves. The planet's oceans and glaciers have also experienced changes—oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, ice caps are melting, and sea level is rising.Forests are dwindling, and the Polar Regions face extinction risks. Erratic rainfall patterns result in floods and droughts, affecting water systems. Various species, from polar bears to tigers, are at risk of extinction due to shifting climates. Changes to Earth's climate driven by increased human emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases are already having widespread effects on the environment: glaciers and ice sheets are shrinking, river and lake ice is breaking up earlier, plant and animal geographic ranges are shifting, and plants and trees are blooming. Adaptations are inheritable characteristics that increase an organism's ability to survive and reproduce in an environment. Adaptations can help an organism find food and water, protect itself, or manage in extreme environments. As the climate changes, some species will adapt by changing their behavior, physical characteristics, or how their bodies function. Others will not be able to adapt. As a result, climate change could lead to expansions, reductions, or extinctions of some populations. Survival and reproduction depend on how well adapted individuals are to local climate patterns. Climate change can disrupt the match between organisms and their local environment, reducing survival and reproduction and causing subsequent impacts on populations or species' distributions across geographic regions.

Yes, climate change can lead to an organism's extinction due to failure of adaptation. Changes in the environment, such as rising temperatures, extreme weather events, and habitat loss, can make it difficult for organisms to survive and reproduce. If an organism is unable to adapt to these changes, it may eventually become extinct.

There are a number of ways in which climate change can threaten the survival of species. One way is by disrupting their reproductive cycles. For example, rising temperatures can cause plants to bloom earlier or later in the year, which can mismatch their pollination timing with the availability of pollinators. This can lead to reduced reproductive success and population declines.

Another way in which climate change can threaten species is by making their habitats unsuitable for survival. For example, rising sea levels can inundate coastal habitats, while rising temperatures can make deserts expand and forests shrink. These changes can force organisms to move to new habitats, but if they are unable to find suitable habitat, they may die.

Climate change can also make organisms more vulnerable to other threats, such as disease and predation. For example, warmer temperatures can allow pathogens to spread more easily, while drought conditions can make it more difficult for organisms to find food and avoid predators.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has concluded that climate change is already having a significant impact on the distribution and abundance of species. If greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise, the IPCC predicts that climate change will be a major driver of extinction in the 21st century.

Here are some specific examples of how climate change is threatening species:

These are just a few examples of the many ways in which climate change is threatening species. It is important to take action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in order to mitigate the impacts of climate change and protect biodiversity.

Thank you Stephen, for commenting, We agreed then GOING CIRCULAR ECONOMY THINKING means formalizing a world under permanent market failure A LA BUSINESS AS USUAL but circular.

But the WCED 1987 "Our common future" and the UNCSD 2012 "The future we want" aimed for a world AWAY FROM TRADITIONAL MARKET THINKING as the only way to correct social and/or environmental market failures, one by going the way of sustainable development, and the other by going the way of green markets. Both of them were geared to leave the traditional market idea behind because it has embedded in its pricing mechanism the root cause of social and/or environmental problems: DISTORTED MARKET PRICES, Prices that do not reflect the social and/or environmental cost associated with the working of the traditional market,

GOING TRADITIONAL ECONOMY CIRCULARITY TO SOLVE THE PROBLEMS OF TRADITIONAL MARKET CIRCULARITY BY ASSUMPTION is a punch in the face to the recommendations the 1987 World Commission on Environment and Development and to the 2012 United Nations Commission on Sustainable development BECAUSE DOING that is GOING FROM POLLUTION PRODUCTION MARKETS WITH BROKEN CIRCULARITY OR LINEAR TO POLLUTION PRODUCTION MARKETS BUT CIRCULAR,

In a traditional economy, in the case of the environment, the good produced are not green and the goods consumed are not green. In the circular traditional economy the good produced are not green, the good consumed are not green, and therefore, the good recycled are not green. The environmental system may collapse in front of you under the circular economy thinking, but while the system is collapsing the corporations will still be making money by externalizing environmenal costs and those cleaning after corporations to close the circle with also be making money while externalizing their environmental externalities, two layers of environmental externalization now,

Thank you for commenting

Respectfully yours

Luico

Yes, global warming affects ocean currents in a number of ways. As the Earth warms, the oceans absorb more heat, which causes them to expand. This expansion can disrupt the flow of ocean currents, which can lead to a number of changes in weather patterns. For example, the Gulf Stream is a major ocean current that flows from the Gulf of Mexico to Europe. If the Gulf Stream were to slow down or stop, it could cause Europe to experience colder winters.

Oceans play a critical role in climate change by absorbing heat from the atmosphere. In fact, the oceans have absorbed more than 90% of the excess heat that has been trapped on Earth since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. As the oceans warm, they release more heat back into the atmosphere, which further accelerates warming.

The oceans also play a role in climate change by absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. When carbon dioxide dissolves in seawater, it forms carbonic acid, which makes the oceans more acidic. This acidification can harm marine life, making it more difficult for them to build their shells and skeletons.

In addition, the melting of glaciers and ice sheets is adding freshwater to the oceans. This freshwater is less dense than saltwater, so it can float on top of the ocean, preventing the deeper, colder water from rising to the surface. This can disrupt the ocean's natural circulation, which can have a number of consequences for climate.

Overall, the oceans are playing a major role in climate change. They are absorbing heat from the atmosphere, releasing heat back into the atmosphere, and absorbing carbon dioxide. These processes are all contributing to the warming of the planet.

Thanks Prof. Lucio. I appreciate your contribution quite very well. I understand perfectly the essence of green economy and that was why I mentioned the adoption and utilistation of green fuel as substitute to hydrocarbon fuel to enforce an environmental sustainability all the world over. Thanks once again for your submission Sir.

Dr Abdul Hallim Majidi thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Dr Jamel Chahed thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Dr Endalamaw Dessie Alebachew thank you for your contribution to the discussion

toutes les sciences peu importe leurs domaines cognitives se focalisent essentiellement de travailler au profit de la société dont la sociologie qu'est a leur tour se spécialise dans l’étude des phénomènes sociétales résultantes de toutes ces interactivités positives que se soient ou négatives.

any thing for Asia

Continued emissions of greenhouse gases will lead to further climate changes. Future changes are expected to include a warmer atmosphere, a warmer and more acidic ocean, higher sea levels, and larger changes in precipitation patterns. Climate risks could affect the Budget and the overall fiscal outlook through a number of pathways, including altering total tax revenue through effects on Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth, and changing Federal spending to respond to climate impacts, both to ameliorate climate damages and spur the transition to clean. Climate shifts like heat waves could restrict the ability of people to work outdoor, and, in extreme cases, put their lives at risk. Under a 2050 climate scenario developed by NASA, continuing growth of the greenhouse emission at today's rate could lead to additional global warming of about 1.5 degrees Celsius by 2050. Across the globe, in response to increases in heat-trapping gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere, temperature and precipitation patterns are changing. The rate of climatic change in the next century is expected to be significantly higher than it has been in the past. It is estimated that India could account for about 3.4 crore of the projected eight crore global job losses from heat stress by 2030. The Reserve Bank of India's latest report suggests that up to 4.5 per cent of India's GDP could be at risk by 2030, owing to lost labour hours from extreme heat and humidity. In India (and all over the world), you can see the effects of rising temperatures everywhere you look as the climate crisis disrupts our daily lives and critical sectors like our energy, agriculture, and transportation systems. This spring, India sweltered through its hottest March on record. Heat waves' frequency and intensity are increasing in India because of climate change. Severe landslides and floods are projected to become increasingly common in such states as Assam. Coal-fired power plants account for a significant portion of India's energy production, resulting in high greenhouse gas emissions, particularly carbon dioxide. Despite efforts to increase renewable energy capacity, the continued use of coal hampers India's progress in mitigating climate change.A changing climate could have devastating effects on India's coastal settlements, infrastructure and ecosystems. Rising sea levels, coastal erosion and changing storm patterns could see 21 million people exposed to devastating floods by 2050, if it follows a high carbon pathway. In order to alleviate the pressure of global warming, three countries developed frameworks, policies, and laws to strive to mitigate and adapt to a changing climate in their own country along with support to developing countries.

Since polluting is profit-making and cleaning pollution is also profit-making, the circular economy theory hasn't solved the problem but provided short-term succours. For instance, those in the pollution-cleaning economy such as those converting plastics to other products, need a continuous supply of plastic waste to remain in business. The best way is to address the issue from the source of pollution not bringing back the pollutants into the environment in a modified form.

Both rights-based and security-based approaches have long-standing critiques, with debates ongoing regarding their relevance and usefulness. Instead, we choose to bypass these buzzwords, taking an encompassing and practical approach to the challenges we face by placing climate change and environmental management within wider, baseline contexts.

For a summary, see https://www.psychologytoday.com/gb/blog/disaster-choice/202101/connecting-climate-change-disaster-risk-and-sustainability and for the detailed science, see:

(a) https://doi.org/10.1108/DPM-02-2017-0043

(b) https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-015-0046-5

(c) https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-015-0038-5

(d) https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-016-2294-0

(e) https://www.routledge.com/The-Routledge-Handbook-of-Disaster-Risk-Reduction-Including-Climate-Change/Kelman-Mercer-Gaillard/p/book/9781138924567

(f) http://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v4i4.729

Following Research articles might be useful for your future review on biomass energy:

Biodiesel production from microalgal biomass by Lewis acidic deep eutectic solvent catalysed direct transesterification

Determination of active sites on the synthesis of novel Lewis acidic deep eutectic solvent catalysts and kinetic studies in microalgal biodiesel production

Water-plasma-enhanced and phase-separation-assisted extraction of microalgal lipid for biodiesel production

Enhanced biodiesel production from wet microalgae biomass optimized via response surface methodology and artificial neural network

Enhanced isolation of lipids from microalgal biomass with high water content for biodiesel production

One-step production of biodiesel from wet and unbroken microalgae biomass using deep eutectic solvent

A new approach of microalgal biomass pretreatment using deep eutectic solvents for enhanced lipid recovery for biodiesel production

Good question Dr Ali Saadi Abdulzahra Jubeir

I had just been reading in Nature that Earth just had its hottest year on record; the reference was:

Climate change is down to man; all nations need to take urgent action to minimise their carbon footprint. For the sake of the next generations.

The answers to your questions are in my monograph "Modern changes in the level of the Black Sea as the basis for the strategy of construction development of the coasts". Look at several of the drawings analyzed in my book.

The first figure is the rise and fall of the coast relative to the shape of the geoid. It's about geodynamics. These are answers to requests about land flooding.

The following figure shows the dependence of sea level changes on increasing carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere. On this issue, see my discussion "Increasing carbon dioxide contribute to lowering sea levels? Is it possible?".

The other two figures provide information about the stabilization of sea level changes.

In fact, effectively reduce global warming, we must collectively lower carbon emissions through sustainable transportation, energy efficiency, reforestation, and responsible waste management, while also advocating for policies that protect our planet. While we cannot stop global warming overnight, we can slow the rate and limit the amount of global warming by reducing human emissions of heat-trapping gases and soot (“black carbon”).We can reduce emissions by shifting to alternative technologies that either don't need gasoline (like bicycles and electric cars) or don't need as much (like hybrid cars). Using public transportation, carpooling, biking, and walking leads to fewer vehicles on the road and less greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Many of these solutions are already being implemented in places around the world. Some can be tackled by individuals, such as using less energy, riding a bike instead of driving, driving an electric car, and switching to renewable energy. Carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gases are the main drivers of global warming. While climate change cannot be stopped, it can be slowed. To avoid the worst consequences of climate change, we'll need to reach “net zero” carbon emissions by 2050 or sooner. We should use energy efficiency technologies use greening transportation means more efficient mass transportation systems, promote the use of renewable means natural source of energy and reduces our use of fossil fuels especially carbon-intensive coals to reduce climate effects.

There are two ways to achieve diversification. The first aspect refers to changing the cropping patterns which further means a change in the proportion of areas dedicated to the cultivation of various crops. The second aspect focuses on the shift of workforce to other related activities (poultry, husbandry etc.).Diversification of productive activities can be met by directing workers towards either agriculture-related activities or non-farm activities. Employment in non-farm activities can help in providing alternate avenues of sustainable livelihood to the farmers and in increasing their income level. Crop diversification refers to the addition of new crops or cropping systems to agricultural production on a particular farm taking into account the different returns from value- added crops with complementary marketing opportunities. In India, diversification has occurred both across and within the crop, livestock, and forestry and fishery sectors. Within the agriculture, the share of output and employment in the non-crop sectors, i.e. animal husbandry, forestry and fisheries, has been gradually increasing. Agricultural Diversification means changing cropping pattern or shifting the agricultural workforce into other non-agricultural activities. The process of diversification involves diversifying an economy's revenue sources away from a single source and towards an ever-increasing range of industries and markets. Crop diversification helps in minimizing the alleviating second generations’ problem such as soil degradation, soil salinity, insect-pest and disease insurgence, environmental pollution, decline in farm profit, nutrient imbalance, climate change etc.Crop diversification promotes the interaction of beneficial soil bacteria, interrupts the disease cycle, and reduces the quantity of weeds. Crop diversification boosts land-use efficiency and crop output by improving the physical and chemical qualities of soil.Diversification can reduce the dependency on synthetic inputs, lower the associated environmental impacts, and increase the resilience of crop production.

According to my understanding for the topic Biodiversity is directly affected by geography and climate conditions that is why India has different endemic species which are not found anywhere else because they can thrive only in a set of conditions which are available here only and temperate countries has different biodiversity. (Although artificially or in the labs we can do anything).

Now because climate is changing for example rainfall patterns, early or late arrival of monsoon, amount of rain, changes in duration of summer and winters etc. It directly affects the biodiversity. If the species has high adaptability it may survive but if it is not resilient it will be extinct.

It all depends on the set of conditions if we alrer the conditions species May differ. We can apply it to understand the scenerio for India or for any geographical region.

2) relationship between forests and climate change is not difficult to understand as different forest regions has their native diversity which regenerates itself when the conditions are suitable for their growth because of alterations in conditions native species cannot grow with the maximum potential and ultimately species which has high adaptability for changing environmental conditions replace the native diversity. That is why lantana is the most dominant invasive species. It also affects the fauna because native species are essential for survival of some other species.

Ultimately climate change directly affects biodiversity. But it takes time to notice the changes.

Dr Murtadha Shukur thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Thank you very much for your contribution Mandana. Sounds interesting.

One of the interesting things about research is that, the facts generated as the ultimate findings today might be disputed tomorrow when replicated under the same conditions or different contexts. At the onset of the open market before the circular one, one of the presupposition of the earlier scientists was that, polyethene bags were environmentally friendly. However, this fact has been disproved and resulted in an idea of circular economy. To me, to conclude that, the traditional circular economy is doing more harm than good is sketchy. It has to take time to reveal itself. For instance, consider AI that has been in existing since 1950s but only recently most of its intelligent agents get accustomed by a majority of its users. Probably, the same thing with circular economy. To construct a viable structure requires time, energy, patience, perseverance, etc.

Agroforestry is a low-cost method of integrated land management that also reduces human impacts on lands. It contributes to developing a green economy by promoting sustainable and resilient forest management, benefitting also small-scale farmers. Agroforestry practices help to reduce emissions by improving soil health and reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. This helps to mitigate emissions from agriculture and generate carbon credits. Increase biodiversity and wildlife. Capture carbon dioxide and reduce erosion and improve soil health that provides wind protection and shade. Agroforestry is a sustainable land-use system that addresses the production needs of farmers and landowners while providing environmental benefits to society. Agroforestry combines agricultural and forestry technologies to create more diverse, productive, profitable, healthy, and sustainable land-use systems. There are many benefits to agroforestry such as increasing farm profitability. Agroforestry systems can provide several benefits to crops, such as reduced pest damage, improved soil health, and increased water availability. As, trees can provide shade for crops, which can help to reduce water loss through evaporation. Sustainable forestry balances the needs of the environment, wildlife, and forest communities supporting decent incomes while conserving our forests for future generations. By integrating trees and crops in innovative ways, agroforestry can help to improve soil health, promote biodiversity, and mitigate the effects of climate change, while also providing a source of income diversification for farmers. Agroforestry can create microclimates with lower mean air temperatures reduce crop transpiration rates by shading crops draw water from deeper soil layers and support root water uptake by crops minimize soil loss during heavy rainfall and/or downstream flood events and create windbreaks.

Soil organic matter functions as a crucial source and sink for nutrients, as a substrate for microbial activity, and as a buffer against fluctuations in acidity, water content, contaminants, etc. Soil organic matter significantly improves the soil's capacity to store and supply essential nutrients (such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium), and to retain toxic elements. It allows the soil to cope with changes in soil acidity, and helps soil minerals to decompose faster. Increasing levels of organic matter aid in soil structure, water-holding capacity, nutrient mineralization, biological activity, and water and air infiltration rates. Soil organic matter is the single most important soil property that can be influenced through management practices. Soil organic matter is the fraction of the soil that consists of plant or animal tissue in various stages of breakdown (decomposition). Most of our productive agricultural soils have between 3 and 6% organic matter. Soil organic matter contributes to soil productivity in many different ways. SOC is the product of carbon dioxide being stored in the soil through photosynthesis, primarily through plants. In addition to the soil providing homes to small and large organisms and helping plants grow, it is an important facet of halting global warming. Global warming increases the rate of decomposition of soil organic carbon (C), a major loss pathway of C from the land surface to the atmosphere, thus contributing to the increase in atmospheric CO2 and hence, global temperatures. Soil organic matter is a primary source of carbon (C) which gives energy and nutrients to soil organisms. This supports soil functionality because it improves the activity of microorganisms in the soil and it can enhance biodiversity. The degradation of one third of the world's soils has released up to 78 Gt of carbon into the atmosphere. Further damage to soil carbon stocks through poor land management will hamper efforts to limit global temperature rise, to avoid increased floods, droughts and other negative climate change impacts. Soil organic carbon is a component of soil organic matter. Organic matter is primarily made up of carbon (58%), with the remaining mass consisting of water and other nutrients such as nitrogen and potassium.

Concerns are always raised about sea level rise, supposedly due to our CO2 emissions.

Sea level always goes up and down a bit, with the various climate cycles which are driving our climate changes.

For example, sea level was 2m higher than now, 6,000 years ago when it was much warmer than now, in the early Holocene (see graph).

- BUT there was no 'tipping point' and neither the Antarctic nor Greenland melted significantly at that time.

Sea levels cannot possibly rise by even 0.5m by 2100, that is absolutely impossible. A realistic level would be 0.05m plus or minus 0.1m.

And if you look carefully at the sea level graph, you'll see that rapidly rising CO2 had no effect on sea level rise.

Cutting CO2, by no matter what amount, is a total waste of time and money and can have no effect whatsoever on the global temperature or on climate change.

Dr Robert Ian Holmes

Climate change mitigation can intersect with genotoxicity by reducing exposure to genotoxic substances, which can harm human health. Mitigation efforts like curbing air pollution from fossil fuels, adopting sustainable agriculture practices, managing water resources more effectively, implementing non-genotoxic disease control measures, and ensuring food security can all contribute to a safer environment, minimizing the risk of genotoxic effects on human DNA, including cancer and other genetic diseases.

The biggest project today is the 50 billion trees being planted by 24 countries, under the "Middle East Green Initiative". Saudi Arabia has set aside 200 million hectares to replant, and calculate that when planted will remove 2.5% of the world's CO2 production each year. The Saudi planting is progressing at the rate of one million trees per week. Another member is planting at five million trees per week. See https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QO8PcbxOu0Y

This is not a programming question. It's a time-series question. Imagine measuring temperature in your back yard every hour for a day. You could use that to make predictions, but they might not be very useful, because weather changes from day to day. So, you need more than a day. Maybe you measure for 3 days. That would be better. But maybe those were 3 warm days, which are followed by 3 cool days. Etc.

Depending on your background, you might start by reading books on time-series analysis. Then move on to books about ocean physics. And then climate physics. You will soon see that statistical prediction is a weak approach, and that dynamical models are required. That takes you from the domain of reading and plotting with python to the domain of building PhD-level scientific and computing skills. The latter go way beyond plotting with python; you'll need to deploy supercomputers to run models that were took many person-decades to develop and take person-years to learn to run. Oh, and the end result will be a model prediction that will not agree with other model predictions to within the error bars we want for climate prediction.

Forecasting the quantity of chlorophyll-a based on time series (historical data) is not considered scientifically reliable due to the variable nature of chlorophyll-a, as it serves as the sole reference source for predicting the past behavior of the study area. Instead, it is recommended to estimate the amount of chlorophyll-a based on the variability of SST and SSS. To initiate this process, it is appropriate to utilize the simple mlp artificial network algorithm, which can be tailored to suit your specific requirements. Please refer to this article for further information: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.115636

Other adverse effects include an increase in the frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones, for instance, Cyclone Idai and Kenneth which devastated Mozambique, Malawi, Zambia and Madagascar. Duration and intensity of heat waves are also on the increase all over Africa, especially in the Sahel region.

A direct driver unequivocally influences ecosystem processes. An indirect driver operates more diffusely, by altering one or more direct drivers. Important direct drivers affecting biodiversity are habitat change, climate change, invasive species, overexploitation, and pollution. “Indirect effect” is a general term referring to a broad variety of species interactions that can occur through chains of direct species interactions, such as predation or interference competition. Biodiversity underpins the health of the planet and has a direct impact on all our lives. Put simply, reduced biodiversity means millions of people face a future where food supplies are more vulnerable to pests and disease, and where fresh water is in irregular or short supply. Climate change can affect individual species but also their ecological interactions. Local climate change effects on plants and animal can disrupt their interactions. Drought increases plant mortality and reduces the production of flowers and fruits. The indirect consequences of climate change, which directly affect us humans and our environment, include: an increase in hunger and water crises, especially in developing countries. threat to livelihoods from floods and forest fires and health risks due to increase in frequency and intensity of heat extremes.

Dr Menoh A Ngon Rene thank you for your contribution to the discussion

The effects of climate change on agriculture are diverse and can be devastating in their effects. About 80% of insurance loxxes are from drought, flooding wnd and hail.

The most prevalent climate change currently documented is Global Warming whose source is mostly related to over enrichment of the greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide.

The temperature anomaly from AGW is now documented as exceeding 1.1 C and the unabated increase over the next century will bring the temperature anomaly to over 1.5 to 2.0 C.

The increasing warming has caused a shrinking of ice coverage and the increase is sea levels. Higher temperatures can interfere will plant physiological process such as pollen production and viability.

Higher temperatures are demonstrated to increase frequency and severity of droughts, frequency and severty of floodkjing, and the increase of severe wind damage.

Among the adaptation to this scenario the crop varieties can be bred for this condition. Also the use of tillage and wind breaks can be employed.

The food system can contribute up to 25% of the emissions of greenhouse gases the adaptation of crop and animal systems can reduce the carbon and nitrogen footprints and in addition the use of regenerative and organic farming crop and animal systems can increase the content of soil organic matter.

Soil organic matter gives a sequestration of carbon and nitrogn in atmospshere while stimulate a more productive and soil nutrient and water cycling.

This is a good point, and your back-of-envelope calculations are correct, but I'm not sure that the temperature will uniformly increase down to the bottom of the ocean. As far as I understand, the deep ocean (below 200m) does not sense that much what happens above. OK, let's increase this depth to 500m - still, we will be dealing with ~8 times smaller volume that should be considered as an expanding one, yielding ~10cm per degree of warming. Overall, I would be more worried by the increasing frequency of extreme meteorological events associated with global warming - it's easier to build even a 3m dam than to protect the whole area from hurricanes or tsunamis.

Education for sustainable agricultural development

Dr Murtadha Shukur thank you for your contribution to the discussion

The concepts of "Green Market Paradigm Shift Knowledge Gaps" and "Dwarf Green Market Paradigm Flip Knowledge Gaps" represent critical areas of concern in the context of environmental sustainability and market dynamics. These knowledge gaps signify the disparities in our understanding of the evolving green economy and the challenges it presents.

The "Green Market Paradigm Shift Knowledge Gaps" pertain to the lack of comprehensive insights into the transformative changes occurring in the global economy as it increasingly shifts towards sustainability, eco-friendliness, and renewable resources. Addressing these gaps is crucial for policymakers, businesses, and researchers to harness the potential of this green transition effectively.

On the other hand, "Dwarf Green Market Paradigm Flip Knowledge Gaps" refer to the often overlooked or underestimated aspects within this shift, which could have significant impacts if ignored. They signify a potential blind spot in academia and policymaking, which, if not recognized, might hinder progress toward a truly sustainable global economy.

Both these knowledge gaps underscore the importance of robust research and comprehensive understanding in shaping a more sustainable and environmentally responsible future, ensuring that we do not inadvertently hinder our progress by neglecting critical aspects of the green market paradigm shift.

India’s controversial plan to link several rivers could upset the local water cycle and reduce rainfall in already-dry regions by as much as 12% during the monsoon season. The project would create a network of 15,000 kilometres of canals and thousands of reservoirs to transfer vast amounts of water from regions in which it is abundant to those that are in need of it. Some scientists have cautioned that too little is known about the environmental effects of river engineering to implement such a gigantic project...

In recent years, the issue of environmental protection has gained significant attention worldwide. As governments strive to address the challenges posed by climate change and other environmental concerns, they must also consider how to handle environmental protests effectively. While some argue that governments should deal with these protests through force, I firmly believe that policy is a more appropriate and effective approach.

Firstly, dealing with environmental protests through policy allows for a peaceful resolution of conflicts. By engaging in dialogue and negotiation with protesters, governments can better understand their concerns and work towards finding mutually beneficial solutions. This approach promotes social cohesion and prevents unnecessary violence or harm to both protesters and law enforcement personnel.

Secondly, policy-based responses to environmental protests are more likely to lead to long-term sustainable solutions. By addressing the root causes of these protests through legislation and regulation, governments can enact meaningful change that benefits both the environment and society as a whole. Forceful measures may suppress protests temporarily but fail to address underlying issues adequately.

Furthermore, policy-based approaches demonstrate respect for democratic principles such as freedom of speech and assembly. Governments have an obligation to protect these fundamental rights while ensuring public safety. By engaging in open dialogue with protesters and considering their demands within the framework of policymaking processes, governments can uphold democratic values while still maintaining law and order.

Moreover, dealing with environmental protests through force risks exacerbating tensions between citizens and authorities. The use of excessive force can lead to further polarization within society and erode trust in government institutions. In extreme cases where force is employed without proper justification or restraint, it may even escalate into human rights abuses or civil unrest.

However, it is essential for policies addressing environmental concerns not to be overly restrictive or burdensome on businesses and individuals. Governments should strive to strike a balance between environmental protection and economic growth, ensuring that policies are fair, feasible, and based on scientific evidence. This approach will foster cooperation rather than confrontation between governments and citizens.

In conclusion, when it comes to dealing with environmental protests, policy-based approaches are far more effective than the use of force. By engaging in dialogue, addressing root causes through legislation, upholding democratic principles, and promoting long-term sustainability, governments can effectively address environmental concerns while maintaining social harmony. It is crucial for governments worldwide to adopt such an approach to ensure a sustainable future for our planet.

References:

1. Hadden J., & Lemos M.C. (2020). Environmental Protests: A Global Analysis of Their Causes, Consequences and Implications for Climate Governance. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 42: 1-8.

2. Della Porta D., & Tarrow S.G. (2012). Interactive Diffusion: The Coevolution of Protest Networks in the Web 2.0 Era. Mobilization: An International Quarterly 17(3): 253-273.

3. Bäckstrand K., & Lövbrand E.(2016). The Road to Paris: Contending Climate Governance Discourses in the Post-Copenhagen Era.International Environmental Agreements: Politics Law and Economics16(3): 415-432.

The ongoing collapse of dwarf green markets due to government intervention raises concerns about the potential criminalization of democratic rights, such as the right to protest. However, it is important to recognize that criminalizing these rights would be a grave violation of democratic principles and would undermine the very essence of a free society. Therefore, we should not expect government policy to move towards such measures.

The right to protest is a fundamental aspect of any democracy. It allows citizens to express their grievances and dissent against policies they perceive as unjust or harmful. Criminalizing this right would suppress the voices of the people and stifle any form of opposition or criticism towards the government's actions. This would create an environment where dissenting opinions are silenced and authoritarianism thrives.

Furthermore, criminalizing protests would set a dangerous precedent for future encroachments on civil liberties. Once governments start restricting one democratic right, it becomes easier for them to infringe upon others. This erosion of democratic values can lead to an autocratic regime where citizens have limited freedoms and are subject to oppressive rule.

Moreover, history has shown that suppressing protests through force or criminalization only exacerbates tensions within society. When people feel their voices are not being heard through peaceful means, they may resort to more extreme methods in order to make themselves heard. This can result in violence and further instability.

Instead of criminalizing protests, governments should focus on addressing the root causes behind public discontentment. By engaging in open dialogue with citizens and actively listening to their concerns, policymakers can work towards finding mutually beneficial solutions that address societal issues without compromising democratic rights.

In conclusion, while dwarf green markets may collapse due to government intervention, it is imperative that we do not expect government policy to move towards the criminalization of democratic rights like the right to protest. Such measures would undermine the principles of democracy and lead to a more authoritarian society. Instead, governments should prioritize open dialogue and address citizens' concerns in order to foster a healthy and inclusive democracy.

Reference:

Smith, J. (2021). The Importance of Protecting Democratic Rights. Journal of Democracy, 25(3), 45-62.

Yes, environmental issues and social change are intertwined, and theatrical works of art can indeed play an effective role in addressing environmental problems, including climate change and global warming, while also influencing human behavior regarding the environment.

Technically, how can this be achieved? We can largely consider the following factors and the practicality of these. For examples, Raising Awareness, Emotional Impact,Promoting Dialogue,Fostering Understanding,Advocacy and Activism, Shaping Perceptions and Behavior, Cultural and Social Impact, Artistic Expression, Education and Outreach etc..

Essentially, I believe that while theatre alone may not single-handedly solve complex environmental problems like climate change, it can be a powerful catalyst for change by influencing perceptions, motivating action, and engaging communities. Combined with other forms of activism, policy changes, and individual efforts, theatre can contribute to the broader societal response to environmental challenges.

Dr Claude Alain Roulet thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Dear Adam,

sure, it is, but you'll need data (prediction) for the future soil variables to be able to make future prediction of suitability by your trained MaxEnt model.

HTH,

Ákos

yes, getting started with the 7Rs: Rethink, Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, Repair, Regift, and Recyclelet's broaden the conversation by including action on all eight of the “Rs”: Reduce, Refuse, Reuse, and Re-Purpose, Repair, Recycle Right, Remove, and Rally! So, let's dig in! Think about what we all can do to make each “R” a part of “R” everyday lives. It starts with the mindset change triggers Remember, Respect, Refuse and Reduce, and continues with the actions Reuse, Return, Refill and Rot, which may demand a portion of your attention, creativity, but does not require that you add any extra materials, and is rounded off by the last resorts Restore, Repurpose. The Principles cover anti- corruption, diversity and inclusion, environment, ethics and business conduct, financial integrity, global citizenship, health and safety, human rights, labor rights, supply chain sustainability, and transparency. To achieve this vision, we have crafted the 2030 5C SD Strategy, by which our strategic priorities, known as the “the 5Cs”: Clean, Community, Culture, Care and Corporate Governance will point the way for the Group's sustainable future toward 2030 and beyond. Sustainability is broken into four distinct areas, known as the four pillars of sustainability: Human, Social, Economic, and Environmental Sustainability. Let's take a look into what these pillars cover. Efficient water and nutrient management should be done to enhance efficiency. Methods like drip-irrigation must be used in place of flood irrigation to save water and government should incentivize farmers to use climate-tolerant crop varieties. Sustainable agriculture and food systems such as organic agriculture and agro-ecology improve food security, eradicate hunger and are economically viable, while conserving land, water, plant and animal genetic resources, biodiversity and ecosystems and enhancing resilience to climate change and natural disasters. Efficient land use and healthy soils are important for food security. Integrated land and water management practices improve agricultural production and enhance soil productivity and its resilience against desertification and other impacts of climate change and variability.

Maxim, good day, Could you please read the context provided under the question to be able to guide you into the nature of this question? You need to know what is a green market and what is a dwarf green market as they are not the same, and you need to be familiar with the current 2023 green marxism threat to dwarf green capitalism.

About green markets and dwarf green markets

Millets can withstand extreme weather, such as drought and high temperatures. They may thrive in the driest, toughest environments. When compared to other cereal crops like rice and wheat, millet has a high nutritional content and is drought-resistant. It also requires less water for growth. Millets, in contrast to rice and wheat, are not only a good source of energy and major nutrients, including protein, but are also a good source of micronutrients such as vitamins, including vitamins A, B, D, E, niacin, pyridoxine, antioxidants, iron and zinc. Millets could be key to ensuring food and nutrition security, resource sustainability, and economic empowerment. Thus, it is critical to create policies towards reversing the global trends of decreasing consumption and production of millets, and enhance consumer awareness of their nutritional and health benefits. Millets provide antioxidants, minerals and protein. As whole grains, each millet variety also offers different types and amounts of fibre, which play a role in regulating bowel function, blood sugar and lipids. Millets are an important crop for small-scale farmers as they require minimal investment and have a low input cost. They also have a high market demand due to their nutritional benefits, making them a lucrative crop for farmers.

Dr Muhammad Umar Zoologist thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Switching to clean sources of energy, such as wind and solar, thus helps address not only climate change but also air pollution and health.Renewable energy as solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass, and geothermal power can provide energy without the planet-warming effects of fossil fuels. There is no path to protecting the climate without dramatically changing how we produce and use electricity: nearly 40% of US CO2 pollution comes from power plants burning fossil fuels. But we can turn things around. Renewable energy minimizes carbon pollution and has a much lower impact on our environment. However, using renewable energy sources will not eliminate all environmental concerns. Although renewable energy sources produce relatively low levels of GHG emissions and conventional air pollution, manufacturing and transporting them will produce some emissions and pollutants.Wind energy is one of the most sustainable forms of energy currently available. It harnesses the power of naturally moving air to spin wind turbines, which in turn generate electricity. Not only is this great because it provides a regenerative form of energy, but it also does so without greenhouse gas emissions. For the most part, renewable energy sources do not cause water pollution. However, when it comes to hydroelectricity, the process of building a dam can produce many harmful chemicals that can seep into the river or water reservoir that the dam is built on.

Smart land conservation can increase carbon sequestration, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, build resilience to changing environmental conditions, and help communities, landscapes, and wildlife adapt to an ever-changing climate. Conservation agriculture (CA) practices can also contribute to making agricultural systems more resilient to climate change. In many cases, conservation agriculture has been proven to reduce farming systems' greenhouse gas emissions and enhance their role as carbon sinks. Climate change further poses a challenge to food security challenges with its influence on food production, costs, and security. Excessive heat or shortage of water can impede crop growth; reduce yields, and influence irrigation, soil quality, and the ecosystem on which agriculture depends. With the conservation of soil cover in conservation agriculture a habitat is created for a number of species that feed on pests, which in turn attracts more insects, birds and other animals. The rotation of crops and cover crops restrains the loss of genetic biodiversity, which is favored with mono-cropping. Core to all climate change solutions is reducing greenhouse gas emissions, which must get to zero as soon as possible. Because both forests and oceans play vitally important roles in regulating our climate, increasing the natural ability of forests and oceans to absorb carbon dioxide can also help stop global warming. CA technologies involve minimum soil disturbance, permanent soil cover through crop residues or cover crops, and crop rotations for achieving higher productivity. CA is a farming system that can prevent losses of arable land while regenerating degraded lands. It promotes maintenance of a permanent soil cover, minimum soil disturbance, and diversification of plant species. Therefore to achieve higher production there should must focus on conservation tillage practices. Reduced soil erosion, improvement in soil moisture, increase beneficial soil microbes, less fuel consumption Reduce soil compaction, reduced dust and smoke to pollute air, maintain of soil nutrient and fertility.

This account is a bot churning out questions. Please ignore it.

The timing of winter crop sowing is subject to climatic change. According to a study done in Eastern Austria, climate change is anticipated to have an impact on the best agricultural management techniques for autumn-sown wheat, particularly those that deal with sowing date 1. According to the analysis, under the existing and predicted meteorological circumstances, planting wheat in Eastern Austria in late September is the optimal course of action. Early wheat planting will be even more crucial in the future since planting wheat in late October will result in a considerably greater yield drop.

Dr Jamel Chahed thank you for your contribution to the discussion

No trade offs in food security, in fact the tree planting that India and 24 countries have started with the "Middle East Green Initiative" will actually increase the amount of farmlands, that can be created when replanting arid areas that formerly had grassland-savannah like the THAR desert.

A more important impact of the tree planting, will be the increase of rainfall, especially if the local "rain trees" are replanted that create the "Cloud forests" where rainclouds are formed from the Pseudomonas bacteria living on the host plant leaves. Read https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/does-rain-come-from-life-in-the-clouds

India is about to start replanting millions to billions of trees, to sequester carbon, according to what was said at the COP27 meeting a year ago by your Minister of the Environment, Forest and Climate Change.

That is a very important issue that scientists in India need to discover, which are India's "rain trees", so more can be planted to help extend the monsoonal moisture during the rainy season further east.

India has the perfect Cloud forests to study, in the Western Ghats, which produce new rain clouds all of the time, but they are wasted as they fly westward over water--instead need to be planted on the eastern side of the Thar to produce rain clouds to rain on that region and regreen it again.

You can read my 2002 proposal at https://www.ecoseeds.com/cool.html which the Saudi government adopted in 2010 to set aside 200 million hectares as Ecological Restoration Preserves, and they are started to replant at the rate of one million trees per week, until 10 billion are planted.

Good day Tetiana, thank you for taking the time to write.

Do you know that there is green markets and there is dwarf green markets, there is green growth and dwarf green growth, there is green economies and dwarf green economices, there are green jobs and dwarf green jobs. This is because since 2012 RIo + 20 conference/UNCSD we decided to go green markets, but then after the agreement to go green markets they went dwarf green markets. Do you know that green markets are pollution reduction markets, dwarf green markets are pollution management markets, and that the traditional market of Adam Smith is a pollution production market? My publications provide some good food for thoughts in these areas.

In short the market cleared by the green market price is a green market, any market not cleared by a green market price IS NOT A GREEN MARKET, so there is no actual confusion for scientist who follow the scientific truth.

Respectfully yours

In fact, capture, usage and storage (CCUS) refers to a suite of technologies that enable the mitigation of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from large point sources such as power plants, refineries and other industrial facilities, or the removal of existing CO2 from the atmosphere. Carbon sequestration is the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide. It is one method of reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere with the goal of reducing global climate change. CCS involves capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) at emission sources, transporting and then storing or burying it in a suitable deep, underground location. CCS can also mean the removal of CO2 directly or indirectly from the atmosphere. Fossil fuel-related CO2 emissions reached 32 Gigatonnes in 2010.Without carbon dioxide, Earth's natural greenhouse effect would be too weak to keep the average global surface temperature above freezing. By adding more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, people are supercharging the natural greenhouse effect, causing global temperature to rise. We are going to need a lot more Orcas to make a difference. In fact, to hit net-zero emissions by 2050, the U.S. may need to vacuum up as much as 1,850 million tons of CO2 a year. Direct air capture is currently expensive and energy-intensive. Changes to atmospheric circulation caused by global warming may persist for centuries after carbon dioxide concentrations decrease. Removing carbon from Earth's atmosphere may not reverse devastating changes to weather patterns in vulnerable areas. Effective adaptation will help people, businesses, communities and countries cope with both the currently-happening and future impacts of climate change. Measures like flood protection and changes to land-use, as well as the ways we construct buildings, can help minimize damages to human livelihoods and the economy. Carbon removal is different from carbon capture and storage (CCS), which captures emissions at the source like a power plant or a cement producer to prevent them from entering the atmosphere in the first place. Carbon capture is a form of emissions reduction rather than carbon removal. With the cloud, not only are fewer servers used, but they are powered efficiently, “reducing the carbon impact on a company's data center.” VP of Marketing and Sales at Verne Global, Lisa Rhodes, says that “according to the Environmental Protection Agency, data centers now account for 1.5% of all electricity. loud computing is capable of improving energy efficiency by 93%, and producing 98% fewer greenhouse gas emissions than on premises IT infrastructure.

Judith Madu Thanks

Dear Khodabakhsh Zabihi Afratakhti,

There is a broad consensus among climate scientists affirming the reality of climate change; as you said, human actions predominantly drive it, specifically the release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). While natural factors can impact Earth's climate, the evidence strongly supports the conclusion that contemporary climate change is primarily a result of human activities. Although natural elements like fluctuations in solar activity can influence the climate, their effect is comparatively minor when contrasted with the impact of human activities. Rigorous monitoring of solar activity has failed to reveal any significant upward trends that could account for the recent global warming.

Best regards,

One of the most promising approach to gain an understanding of this issue is to investigate factual and perceived changes in mental health and climate in people who reside in territories that most affected by climate changes, for example, Arctics, Siberia, and etc.

Renewable energy sources which are available in abundance all around us, provided by the sun, wind, water, waste, and heat from the Earth are replenished by nature and emit little to no greenhouse gases or pollutants into the air. Solar photovoltaic are the fastest growing electricity source. At present, wind power is the most efficient method of sustainable energy production. In fact, it's more than twice as efficient as its closest competitor (geothermal). Some resources will practically never run out. These are known as renewable resources. Renewable resources also produce clean energy, meaning less pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, which contribute to climate change. If we could replace fossil fuels with abundant renewable energy, we would cut energy prices, reduce emissions and lower the future risks of climate change, including the impact on food production. India is aiming to attain 175 GW of renewable energy which would consist of 100 GW from solar energy, 10 GW from bio-power, 60 GW from wind power, and 5 GW from small hydropower plants by the year 2022. Investors have promised to achieve more than 270 GW, which is significantly above the ambitious targets. India has committed for a goal of 500 GW renewable energy capacity by 2030.In line with this commitment, India's installed renewable energy capacity has been experiencing a steady upward trend. From 94.4 GW in 2021, the capacity has gone up to 119.1 GW in 2023 as of Q4.

Renewable energy differs from fossil fuels principally in their diversity, abundance and potential for use anywhere on the planet, but above all in that they produce neither greenhouse gases which cause climate change nor polluting emissions. Renewable energy is energy derived from natural sources that are replenished at a higher rate than they are consumed. Sunlight and wind, as, are such sources that are constantly being replenished. Renewable energy sources are plentiful and all around us. Renewable energy is widely viewed as playing a central role in climate change mitigation and a clean energy transition. Most kinds of renewable energy are also “carbon-free”: they do not emit CO2 or other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Supporting rural development: Renewable energy technologies can support rural development by providing access to energy to rural communities, which can help to improve quality of life, increase agricultural productivity and stimulate economic growth. Future changes are expected to include a warmer atmosphere, a warmer and more acidic ocean, higher sea levels, and larger changes in precipitation patterns. The extent of future climate change depends on what we do now to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The more we emit the larger future changes will be. As the climate warms, Americans are expected to use more energy, mostly electricity, for cooling. This higher demand will also increase the chance of blackouts or other power disruptions. As the climate warms, Americans are expected to use more energy, mostly electricity, for cooling. This higher demand will also increase the chance of blackouts or other power disruptions. However, renewable excluding hydroelectricity will contribute only 5-6% in India's energy mix by 2031-32 (Planning Commission). India has an enormous potential for renewable energy across the various sources and greater reliance on renewable energy sources offers enormous economic, social, and environmental benefits. Most of our energy comes from fossil fuels today. When we burn fossil fuels for energy, carbon dioxide is released, leading to accumulation of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere and climate change. By switching to renewable energy, we can reduce our carbon footprint by up to 2.5 tons annually. Renewable and energy efficiency, boosted by substantial electrification, can provide over 90% of the necessary reductions in energy-related carbon emissions.

Findings of his research [1] "Three Gorges Dam: friend or foe of riverine greenhouse gases?" put into question some prejudices and should imply further deepening of the scientific community knowledge. "These findings suggest that ‘large-dam effects’ are far beyond our previous understanding spatiotemporally, which highlights the fundamental importance of whole-system budgeting of GHGs under the profound impacts of huge dams". The question remains what comprehensive environmental impacts of such huge changes of hydrologic systems on all the components of the earth system as well as on associated modification of population activities (agriculture, industries, production...)? Then what would be the impacts of these changes on the different budgets of GHE, water cycle, and other exchanges at the interfaces of the earth system?

[1] Ni, J., Wang, H., Ma, T., Huang, R., Ciais, P., Li, Z., ... & Borthwick, A. G. (2022). Three Gorges Dam: friend or foe of riverine greenhouse gases?. National Science Review, 9(6), nwac013: Available on:

The comprehensive water balance expresses the amount of virtual water associated with food products trade and defines a "Water Dependency Index" (WDI), which represents the part of net virtual water in the total food demand water equivalent. This assumes that the allowance in Blue Water to irrigation must adjust to the available water once the direct needs insured.

The Food Demand Water Equivalent (FDWE) includes water equivalent of Agricultural Production consumed on the local market and the water-equivalent of agri-food imports. The water equivalent of agricultural production includes green water-equivalent and blue water equivalent.

The "Water Dependency Index" (WDI) defined by Besbes et al. (2002, 2010) represents the net equivalent of Virtual Water volumes (Imports-Exports) within the total food demand and is expressed as: WDI = (IMP-EXP) / FDWE.

If one refers to international literature, the concept of water dependency, as defined by FAO (2003), relates only to blue water; it expresses the external renewable water resources (originating outside the country) as a percentage of the total renewable water resources (internal and external). This definition has been largely used by the scientific community as well as by international organisations.

Based on water footprint concept, Hoekstra and Mekonnen (2012) defined the ‘virtual water import dependency’ of a nation as ‘the ratio of the external to the total water footprint of national consumption’ where total ‘water consumption’ refers to the ‘water needed for the production of the domestic demand for goods and services’. The indicator is conceived to reflect the extent to which a country relies on imports of water in virtual form. The results reported by Hoekstra and Mekonnen (2012) on water dependency give, as it may be expected, high values for water-scarce countries (like Jordan 86%, Israel 82%, Yemen 76%, Lebanon 73%). These results reveal however some striking points; in particular, some water-rich countries such as Italy, Germany, the United Kingdom, and The Netherlands have surprisingly high water dependency indexes between 60–95%.

By relating the Water Dependency Index to agricultural water, the indicator proposed by Besbes et al. (2002, 2010)attempts to go beyond the appraisal of the water dependency level of nations to specify the balance sheet items related to the national food demand. As the net equivalent of virtual water represents the difference between the total food demand water equivalent and the total food production water equivalent, the Water Dependency Index (WDI) could be more explicitly detailed in order to bring out the different contributions to food production: "Blue Water" referring to the use of ground and surface water as well as non-conventional water resources, "Green Water" referring to the water reserves of the soil effectively used in crop production or into direct grazing, and "Virtual Water" referring the flux of the "net virtual water import". The objective is to consider the extent to which greater value for all water resources could be achieved.

As the major part of water resources is directly or indirectly used in food production, the WDI related to food balance is in itself sufficient to reflect the National water security by measuring the level to which a nation relies on foreign water to ensure its food demand. This indicator could be consolidated by financial indicators, for instance, the coverage rate of the agri-food trade balance. The improvement of the food security of a country expressed in terms of WDI will depend on the capacity of the country to improve food productivity either in the irrigated sector (Blue Water, including non-conventional water resource) as well as in the rain-fed agriculture and direct grazing (Green Water). From this point of view, the WDI appears as a major decision-making tool for sustainable water resources management. It is also a learning tool as well as a 'discussion-support' tool that provides a common platform for the coherence of the activities of different actors and stakeholders.

Besbes, M., Chahed, J., & Hamdane, A. (2019). Food and water management in Northwest Africa. The Oxford Handbook of Food, Water and Society, 426.

Besbes, M., Chahed, J., & Hamdane, A. (2019). National water security: case study of an arid country: Tunisia. Cham, CH: Springer.

Hamdane, A., Chahed, J., & Besbes, M. (2014). Sécurité Hydrique de la Tunisie: Gérer l'eau en conditions de pénurie. Sécurité Hydrique de la Tunisie, l'Harmattan, Paris.

Renewable energy accounted for only 12.3% of total energy. India's total renewable energy capacity, excluding large hydro and nuclear plants, reached 122 gigawatts in February 2023. A growth to 50% renewable in another ten years, therefore, requires the country's energy transformation to pick up a lot of speed. In 2020, India used 77% fossil fuels for its electricity generation, of which 72.5% came from coal, 4.2% came from natural gas and 0.3% came from oil. India receives nearly 4 per cent of the global precipitation and ranks 133 in the world in terms of water availability per person per annum. The total renewable water resources of India are estimated at 1,897 sq km per annum. Solar PV installations will continue to break new records, with annual additions forecast to reach over 160 GW by 2022. That would be almost 50% higher than the level achieved in 2019 prior to the pandemic, affirming solar's position as the “new king” of global electricity markets. China is now the undisputable global leader of renewable energy expansion worldwide, and the IEA forecasts that by 2021, more than one-third of global cumulative solar PV and onshore wind capacity will be located in China.The country boasts one of the largest manufacturing ecosystems for wind energy and is experiencing rapid growth in solar capacity, propelling India to be the global leader in renewable energy. India has set the target of having 500GW of renewable energy by 2030. Coal-based power generation, however, ensures stable operation of the electricity transmission grid. As a renewable source of power, solar energy has an important role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating climate change, which is critical to protecting humans, wildlife, and ecosystems. Solar energy can also improve air quality and reduce water use from energy production. Generating electricity from solar panels produce no greenhouse gases whatsoever, and so can help to reduce the effect of climate change if used widely. With solar energy powering a home or business, there is no burning of fuel and no emissions from energy production. Some types of PV cell technologies use heavy metals, and these types of cells and PV panels may require special handling when they reach the end of their useful life. Some solar thermal systems use potentially hazardous fluids to transfer heat, and leaks of these materials could be harmful to the environment. Solar power produces no emissions during generation itself, and life-cycle assessments clearly demonstrate that it has a smaller carbon footprint from "cradle-to-grave" than fossil fuels.During combustion, fossil fuels emit greenhouse gases; carbon dioxide is the major harmful gas emitted. Greenhouse gases are responsible for global warming which result in climatic change. If more people convert to solar energy use, we can conserve the environment because fewer gases are released.

Energy efficiency is the use of less energy to perform the same task or produce the same result. Energy-efficient homes and buildings use less energy to heat, cool, and run appliances and electronics, and energy-efficient manufacturing facilities use less energy to produce goods. Energy efficiency delivers a number of environmental benefits. It notably reduces GHG emissions, both direct emissions from fossil fuel combustion or consumption, and indirect emissions reductions from electricity generation. Reducing energy use is essential in the fight against climate change, because traditional power plants burn fossil fuels that release greenhouse gases and contribute to air pollution. Energy-efficient homes and buildings are also better equipped to switch to renewable energy, which does not produce harmful emissions. Energy efficiency generally pertains to the technical performance of energy conversion and consuming devices and building materials. Energy conservation generally includes actions to reduce the amount of energy end use. The many benefits of energy efficiency include: Environmental: Increased efficiency can lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and other pollutants, as well as decrease water use. Economic: Improving energy efficiency can lower individual utility bills, create jobs, and help stabilize electricity prices and volatility. Energy efficiency is critical to solving the climate crisis. In most cases, efficiency measures have proven to be the most cost-effective way to address climate change while reducing energy waste, saving money, and affordably expanding the use of renewable energy resources. Changing our main energy sources to clean and renewable energy is the best way to stop using fossil fuels. These include technologies like solar, wind, wave, tidal and geothermal power. Switch to sustainable transport. Petrol and diesel vehicles, planes and ships use fossil fuels. Energy efficiency means the work done per joule of energy consumed, whereas carbon efficiency is defined as the work done per kilogram of CO2 emitted. Energy efficiency delivers a number of environmental benefits. It notably reduces GHG emissions, both direct emissions from fossil fuel combustion or consumption, and indirect emissions reductions from electricity generation. The energy sector is the largest emitter of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change. In turn, changes in climate can disrupt energy networks themselves, stress infrastructure, and pose safety risks to people.Energy efficiency means to use less energy to perform the same task. Basically to eliminate energy waste. Energy conservation is to not use energy. As, turning lights off in an unused room is energy conservation while switching to more energy efficient lights such as LEDs is energy efficiency. Reducing your energy usage reduces the demand for fossil fuels and, in turn, lowers the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Climate change results in heat waves, drought, higher sea level, abnormal weather patterns and a greater likelihood of natural disasters. Switch to green power generated from renewable energy sources like solar, wind, and hydropower. You can also consider rooftop solar or other self-supplied green power. Visit EPA's Power Profiler to learn about the air emissions impacts of your locally provided electricity. Energy conservation is a crucial process in that everyone should take part. Making efforts to save energy helps protect the natural environment. It cuts down greenhouse gas emissions, which slows down global warming. It also saves money by reducing electricity usage.