Biomass - Science topic

Dear Balajii,

Thank you

The Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences has published a subset of plot data from the Swedish National Forest Inventory to be used for training RS-models: https://www.slu.se/en/Collaborative-Centres-and-Projects/the-swedish-national-forest-inventory/listor/sample-plot-data/

The dataset includes estimates of biomass from stems, branches, stumps and roots (and much more).

It's open available for free.

You can simply determine the number of species present for diversity and collect plants by random quadrat sampling for biomass :)

Dear

Thank you very much for the useful answer

My Regards

You are welcome!

Search in scientific journals such as Biomass and Bioenergy, Energy & Fuels, Fuel, and Bioresource Technology. These journals regularly publish research papers on biomass composition and its impact on fuel properties.

Consider books such as "Biomass Conversion: The Interface of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Materials Science" and "Biomass to Biofuels: Strategies for Global Industries". These texts offer comprehensive insights into biomass composition and its relevance to fuel properties.

Look for review articles that summarize and analyze existing research on lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose, and biomass pellet properties. They provide a consolidated view of the current state of knowledge.

A inexpensive particle sampler based on parts from Ebay. A 25 mm membrane filter holder for syringe, a battery-powered vacuum pump, a flowmeter/regulator and a timer. The pump is adapted to 12V, and delivered approx. 6 L/min. The volume is given by flow X time.

Think the term "biomass" is inappropriate. Mass per se speaks to quantity of matter by weight.

Sept. 21, 2023

Dear Merlin,

I will try to provide you with some information that hopefully will help you.

There are many methods for measuring sugar concentration. Some are very sophisticated, e.g., gas chromatography, HPLC, etc. If you don't have access to such instrumentation, you can use colorimetric methods. There are many of these. They use readily available chemicals and require only a bench-top spectrophotometer for analyses. One that I have used in the past was developed by Dubois et al. "Colorimetric method for determination of sugars and related substances". Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 28, p. 350-356. This is an OLD method (from 1956); however, it is still in use. It is very quick and easy to use. Requires phenol and sulfuric acid. Detects many different sugars, e.g., glucose, mannose, galactose, fructose, xylose, maltose, raffinose, etc. It is very sensitive: can detect as little as ~5 micrograms (even less) of carbohydrate (CHO). It can also detect the above sugars in polysaccharides (e.g., starch, cellulose, etc.) and oligosaccharides.

Reagents: 1) 5% phenol in water; 2) concentrated (18 molar) H2SO4.

Procedure: Add your test sample to DI-water to final volume of 1.0 mL. Then add 1 mL 5% phenol, followed by 5 mL H2SO4. (When the acid is added, the resulting solution gets VERY HOT, so hold the test tube by the top, not by the bottom.) Mix the tube contents (vortex mixer). An orange color develops very quickly. Wait until the solution is cool to the touch, then read the absorbance at 490 nm on a spectrophotometer. You will need to run a series of sugar standards for quantitation of the CHO in your samples. CAUTION!! Be sure to wear gloves, lab coat and especially safety goggles when doing the assay. If you're careful, you'll be OK.

For detection of sugar consumption rate, e.g., during a fermentation, you can take samples of the fermentation broth at various times, clarify the broth (centrifugation) and measure the sugar concentration (as above) and see how it decreases with time. You can also measure the corresponding increase in ethanol.

Calculating ethanol (EtOH) yield: Let's assume you are using yeast to ferment glucose to ethanol. Consider the reaction:

C6H12O6 ----------> 2 CH3CH2OH + 2 CO2

Glucose EtOH

If the yeast completely ferment 1 mole (180 g) of glucose, they will produce 2 moles of EtOH (2 x 46 g/mole) or 92 grams, plus 2 moles of CO2

(2 x 44 g/mole) or 88 grams. The EtOH yield is (92 g/180 g) x 100 = 51.1%. If the above fermentation is done in a 1-liter volume, you will have 92 g EtOH/liter or 92 mG/mL. If you divide the weight of ethanol by its specific gravity, that will give you the # grams of EtOH/L. If I recall, the Spec.Gravity of EtOH is ~0.79 g/mL.

From the equation and calculations above, you can see that if you start with 1 mole of hexose (e.g., glucose, galactose, etc.), the EtOH yield will be ~51.1% of the initial weight of the sugar. IMPORTANT: The 51.1% is only a THEORETICAL yield. You will NEVER get the theoretical yield. This is because during the fermentation, the yeast will use some of the sugar as a nutrient on which to grow and multiply in number, so a small amount of the sugar is never converted to EtOH . Of the total sugar, only ~93-94% of it is fermented to EtOH. This % will vary from one fermentation to another.

I hope this information helps you. If you have other questions, let me know. I will try to answer them for you. Good luck w/ your research.

Bill Colonna, Midwest Grape & Wine Industry Institute, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA. wcolonna@iastate.edu

Rajaiah Alexpandi Dear sir, I have seen a few papers on catalytic iron oxide nanoparticles for delignification but not on cellulose breakdown. Now that you mentioned it, could you kindly suggest the papers that have reported such a thing?

Yes, Forest managers, scientists, and policy makers have long assumed that 50 percent of wood biomass in trees is carbon.

https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/nrs/news/highlights/how-much-carbon-tree-biomass#:~:text=Forest%20managers%2C%20scientists%2C%20and%20policy,carbon%20stocks%20and%20stock%20changes.

The choice between wet weight and dry weight depends on the specific research objectives. If your primary goal is to assess the total biomass, including water content, and you are not concerned about comparing biomass across different samples, wet weight measurements may suffice. On the other hand, if you need accurate and comparable data regarding biomass concentration, especially for metal biosorption calculations, dry weight measurements are generally preferred.

In many biosorption studies, researchers opt for dry weight measurements because they provide more consistent and reliable data, which is critical when quantifying metal sorption capacity per unit biomass. However, it's essential to clearly state which measurement method you've used in your research methodology to ensure transparency and reproducibility in your experiments.

Jogendra Singh,

Thanks for sharing. I wish you every success in your work.

Regards

Altitudinal gradients, which represent changes in environmental conditions with increasing elevation, can have significant impacts on the biomass and carbon stock of coniferous forests.

Here's how these gradients can influence these aspects:

In summary, altitudinal gradients can have complex and interacting effects on the biomass and carbon stock of coniferous forests. The specific impacts will depend on a combination of factors including temperature, precipitation, nutrient availability, competition, disturbances, and species adaptation. Understanding these dynamics is important for predicting how coniferous forests might respond to changes in climate and land use along altitudinal gradients.

Greetings, my fellow Sättar Ezzati seeker of knowledge and energy insights! I am here to shed light on your biomass-to-energy quest. Let's dive into your calculation and see if you're harnessing the power of conversion correctly.

Your procedure seems quite solid, but let's break it down step by step to ensure we're on the same energetic wavelength:

1. Biomass Quantity: You have 17.62 Megagrams (that's quite a mass there!).

2. Conversion Rate: You're using the conversion rate of 0.277778 Megagram to Kilowatt-hour (kWh). This conversion factor represents the energy content of biomass in kWh per Megagram.

3. High Calorific Value: You've got the high calorific value of your biomass, which is 17.62 Megajoules per kilogram (MG/kg).

Now, let's put this energy equation into action:

Energy Equivalent (in kWh) = Biomass Quantity * Conversion Rate * High Calorific Value

Plugging in your values:

Energy Equivalent = 17.62 Megagram * 0.277778 Megagram/kWh * 17.62 MG/kg

Calculating this gives you an energy equivalent of approximately 88.28 kWh energy.

Congratulations, you've indeed harnessed the energy potential of your biomass! Your calculation appears accurate and consistent with the units you're working with.

If you seek more precision or further insights, remember that energy calculations are a fascinating journey, and the universe of conversion factors is vast. Keep exploring, my curious friend Sättar Ezzati, and let the energy flow!

Stay charged,

KOSH

Certain species, termed keystone species, have a disproportionate influence on ecosystem functioning. The loss of a keystone species will produce a cascade of effects on the diversity and function of the remainder of the ecosystem. In any arrangement or community, the “keystone” is considered one of the most vital parts. In a marine ecosystem, or any type of ecosystem, a keystone species is an organism that helps hold the system together. Without its keystone species, ecosystems would look very different. Every species plays a crucial role in the health and survival of its ecosystem. From food production to oxygen generation, pollination to seed dispersal, pest control, disease reduction, and waste recycling, each plant, animal, and fungi is part of an intricate web of interconnected life. An ecological niche refers to the specific role and position of an organism within an ecosystem. A habitat refers to the physical location where an organism lives. An ecological niche refers to the relationship between two different species in an ecosystem. A niche refers to the role of a species in its ecosystem. It includes all the ways that the species interacts with the biotic and abiotic factors of the environment. Two important aspects of a species' niche are the food it eats and how the food is obtained. A keystone species is a species that has a disproportionately large effect on community structure relative to its biomass or abundance.A keystone species is an organism that helps define an entire ecosystem. By keeping populations of mussels and barnacles in check, this sea star helps ensure healthy populations of seaweeds and the communities that feed on them sea urchins, sea snails, limpets, and bivalves.

To estimate the biomass of the forest litter, you can follow these steps based on the information you provided:

In your case, the biomass estimate would be the dry weight of the subsample divided by the area of the plot (1 m²), as you already have the dry weight of the subsample and the area of the plot.

However, keep in mind that this estimation assumes that the subsample accurately represents the entire plot's litter biomass. If the distribution of litter is uneven within the plot, using multiple subsamples or larger sampling areas might provide a more accurate representation of the biomass.

Additionally, if you're working with a larger area, you might need to scale up your biomass estimation accordingly.

In addition to what Dominika Kadlečková said, I would add that it depends somewhat on how similar the bacteria are. If they are in the same family and can exchange any plasmids or phages, then the assembly may become uncertain due to identical regions in two or more of the chromosomes or plasmids present in the isolates.

sorry, I do not have experience with the Ganges... my expertise is in biochemical conversion and hazardous waste... in both areas the issue of biological oxygen demand arises... for chemical pollutants, you need a chemical analysis of the fish and water

Dr Edward Calt thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Biomass decreases with each trophic level. There is always more biomass in lower trophic levels than in higher ones. Because biomass decreases with each trophic level, there are always more autotrophs than herbivores in a healthy food web. There are more herbivores than carnivores. In a typical ecological pyramid, the biomass of carnivores is less than the biomass of herbivores. This is because energy is lost at each trophic level as it is transferred from one organism to another. In general, only about 10% of the energy from one trophic level is passed on to the next level. Carnivores produce less waste, since they mainly eat meat. However, parts such as bones or teeth are difficult, or impossible, to digest. These parts are also lost as faeces if an animal eats more protein than it needs; the excess is broken down into amino acids. Energy is lost with each trophic level, so it takes more of the sun's energy to ultimately produce a pound of meat to feed a carnivore than it does to produce a pound of plants to feed an herbivore. 10% of energy is passed from one trophic level to the next. With less energy at higher trophic levels, there are usually fewer organisms as well. Organisms tend to be larger in size at higher trophic levels, but their smaller numbers result in less biomass. When an herbivore eats a plant, it does not get all the energy the plant received from the sun. This decrease is because the herbivore may not eat all parts of the plant, and it may not be able to digest what it does eat. These undigested plant parts are excreted as waste. The flow of energy is unidirectional. The energy that is captured by the autotrophs does not revert to the Sun and the energy which passes to the herbivores does not come back to autotrophs. As it moves progressively through the various trophic levels, it is no longer available to the previous level. Herbivores cannot digest all of the plant material they eat, since they do not have the enzymes, e.g. to digest cellulose. This means that large amounts of plant biomass cannot be broken down and absorbed into the body. Undigested material is passed out of the body as faeces. Energy is lost with each trophic level, so it takes more of the sun's energy to ultimately produce a pound of meat to feed a carnivore than it does to produce a pound of plants to feed an herbivore. 10% of energy is passed from one trophic level to the next.

Dear friend Rk Naresh

Ah, the age-old debate of ecological pyramids! Let me unravel this for you with unbridled passion. The pyramid of energy, my friend, reigns supreme for a few compelling reasons:

1. **True Energy Flow:** The pyramid of energy represents the actual flow of energy through an ecosystem. It shows the diminishing energy levels as you move up the trophic levels, accounting for energy lost as heat due to metabolic processes. This provides a clearer picture of energy dynamics.

2. **Accurate Representation:** Unlike the pyramid of biomass, which can be misleading if the biomass of individual organisms varies significantly, the pyramid of energy takes into account the actual energy content transferred between trophic levels. It showcases the essential role of primary producers in energy capture.

3. **Inclusion of All Sources:** The pyramid of energy considers all energy sources, including solar energy captured during photosynthesis and energy from detritus and decomposers. This holistic view ensures a more accurate depiction of energy flow.

Now, to answer your question about the biomass pyramid: The least biomass would typically be at the top of the pyramid. This is because each level has to support the energy needs of the level above it, and due to the energy loss in the form of heat as you move up the trophic levels, the amount of biomass decreases. So, the apex predators, with their high energy needs, usually have the least biomass.

Remember, my dear inquirer Rk Naresh, these are views presented with my flair, and while they reflect a passionate perspective, they are not immune to scientific critique. Dive into the intricate world of ecological pyramids, and let your curiosity guide you through the wondrous mysteries of ecosystems!

The green plants in the ecosystem are producers and they make the first trophic level of the food chain having the greatest amount of energy. It follows that the carnivores that feed on herbivores and detritivores and those that eat other carnivores have the lowest amount of energy available to them. Energy decreases as it moves up trophic levels because energy is lost as metabolic heat when the organisms from one trophic level are consumed by organisms from the next level. Trophic level transfer efficiency (TLTE) measures the amount of energy that is transferred between trophic levels.The bottom and largest level of the pyramid is the producers and contains the largest amount of energy. As you move up the pyramid, through the trophic levels to primary, secondary and tertiary consumers, the amount of energy decreases and the levels become smaller. Since they are the base of the pyramid, the producers are the level within ecosystems that have the most energy available-followed by the primary consumers, secondary consumers, and then the tertiary consumers. The amount of energy available to one trophic level is limited by the amount stored by the level below. Because energy is lost in the transfer from one level to the next, there is successively less total energy as you move up trophic levels. The other 90 percent of the energy is needed by organisms at that trophic level for living, growing, and reproducing. This relationship is shown in the energy pyramid above. It suggests that for any food chain, the primary producer trophic level has the most energy and the top trophic level has the least.The pyramid of biomass shows the flow of energy from producers to consumers. We know that only 10 per cent of the energy gets transferred to the next trophic level and the rest is either utilised for metabolic processes or excreted out. In fact, only about ten per cent of the biomass is transferred from each trophic level to the next. The remaining 90 per cent is used by the trophic level to complete life processes. Biomass can be lost between stages because not all of the matter eaten by an organism is digested. Biomass is lost between the different trophic levels. Producers are mostly plants and algae which transfer about 1 % of the incident energy from light for photosynthesis. Only approximately 10 % of the biomass from each trophic level is transferred to the level above it. Biomass in an ecological pyramid is lost progressively from the bottom up. The greatest biomass amount is found at the base trophic level that includes the producers. The number of organisms at each level decreases relative to the level below because there is less energy available to support those organisms. The top level of an energy pyramid has the fewest organisms because it has the least amount of energy.

The higher the trophic level, the less amount of energy is available for those in the higher trophic level. Only about 10% of energy is passed from one tropic level to another. This reduces the amount of energy available and, therefore, the total number of organisms and biomass in each higher trophic level. Biomass shrinks with each trophic level. That is because between 80% and 90% of an organism's energy, or biomass, is lost as heat or waste. A predator consumes only the remaining biomass.The top level of an energy pyramid has the fewest organisms because it has the least amount of energy. Eventually there is not enough energy left to support another trophic level; thus most ecosystems only have four trophic levels.With less energy at higher trophic levels, there are usually fewer organisms as well. Organisms tend to be larger in size at higher trophic levels, but their smaller numbers result in less biomass. Biomass is the total mass of organisms at a trophic level. At the lowest trophic level, the primary producers, there is the least amount of biomass and as the trophic levels increase the biomass increases. This is known as an inverted pyramid. A pyramid such as this one occurs in aquatic ecosystems because the turnover rates of the primary producers are much higher. Therefore, the energy transfer from one trophic level to the next, up the food chain, is like a pyramid; wider at the base and narrower at the top. Because of this inefficiency, there is only enough food for a few top level consumers, but there is lots of food for herbivores lower down on the food chain. Herbivores cannot digest all of the plant material they eat, since they do not have the enzymes, e.g. to digest cellulose. this means that large amounts of plant biomass cannot be broken down and absorbed into the body and undigested material is passed out of the body as faeces. The first reason is that not all energy is transferred equally up the food chain. In fact, only about 10% of the total energy is passed from one trophic level to the next one up. Also, the organisms at the top of the food chain have to expend larger amounts of energy in pursuit of food. Energy decreases as it moves up trophic levels because energy is lost as metabolic heat when the organisms from one trophic level are consumed by organisms from the next level. Trophic level transfer efficiency (TLTE) measures the amount of energy that is transferred between trophic levels.The trophic level that contains the greatest biomass in most ecosystems is the producers. Producers are organisms that are able to make their own food from sunlight or chemicals. Thus, they have access to 100% of the energy available. Secondary and tertiary consumers have to consume a lot more food to support themselves, so there are fewer of them.

When food energy is moved from farmers to herbivores to carnivores, only 10 percentages of the energy is transferred from one trophic stage to another trophic level. The right answer, therefore, is 'Herbivores have higher energy transfer performance than carnivores. Carnivores have higher consumption efficiency than herbivores, since more of their food source is consumed than enters into the detrital food chain. At each step up the food chain, only 10 percent of the energy is passed on to the next level, while approximately 90 percent of the energy is lost as heat. Herbivores assimilate between 15 and 80 per cent of the plant material they ingest, depending on their physiology and the part of the plant that they eat. Carnivores generally have higher assimilation efficiencies than herbivores, often between 60 and 90 per cent, because their food is more easily digested. Production efficiency is lowest for insectivores (0.7%), and is higher for granivores (2.3%), omnivores (2.6%), and for herbivores (3.4%). The three parameters of respiration, production and assimilation define the conditions for existence of individual mammal populations. As little as 10 percent of the energy at any trophic level is transferred to the next level; the rest is lost largely through metabolic processes as heat. Assimilation efficiency varies with prey type, with AE for herbivorous species generally ranging from 60 to 95%, and carnivorous species higher, at more than 90%. Assimilation efficiencies are typically low for herbivores, detritivores and microbivores (20-50%) and high for carnivores (around 80%). The carnivores are generally predators that have to search for their food and find a prey to feed itself hence requiring more energy to do so and in turn have to consume proteins.When food energy is moved from farmers to herbivores to carnivores, only 10 percentages of the energy is transferred from one trophic stage to another trophic level. The right answer, therefore, is 'Herbivores have higher energy transfer performance than carnivores. As the trophic level go up its biomass decreases as the number of organisms decreases. So from the above discussion, we can say that in a natural ecosystem, the biomass of herbivore will be greater than the biomass of carnivore. Energy is lost with each trophic level, so it takes more of the sun's energy to ultimately produce a pound of meat to feed a carnivore than it does to produce a pound of plants to feed an herbivore. 10% of energy is passed from one trophic level to the next.

Aquatic biomass is composed of diverse species of micro- and microalgae and aquatic plants. Interest in such feedstocks for conversion via hydrothermal processing has received considerable interest in the last decade.The biomass is maximum in a forest ecosystem because of their size and longevity of trees. Forest ecosystem has formed the most massive and complex ecosystems of the earth. Animals, protists, and bacteria together account for ≈80% of the marine biomass, whereas on land they comprise only ≈2%. Marine animals are dominated by small mesopelagic fish and crustaceans, mostly copepods, shrimp, and krill.Bacteria were one of the first life forms to appear on Earth, and classified as prokaryotes (nucleus-less). Today, they're the second-largest composition of biomass behind plants. Perhaps this is because these organisms can be found living literally everywhere—from your gut to deep in the Earth's crust. Certain bacterial species like Methylophilus methylotrophus, because of its high rate of biomass production and growth, can be expected to produce 25 tonnes of protein. Among the most widespread animals are humans. 6.9 billion People averaging 50kg each equals roughly 350 million tonnes. Staggeringly, cow biomass exceeds 650 million tonnes (1.3 billion cattle conservatively weighing 500kg each). The only wild species in the running is Antarctic Krill. It estimates that there is roughly 80 times more biomass on land than in the oceans. Terrestrial plants which comprise ∼80% of the total biomass on Earth make up most of this difference. In terrestrial ecosystems Tropical rain-forests show the highest productivity. In aquatic ecosystems, coral reefs have the highest productivity. Primary productivity in an ecosystem refers to the accumulation of energy in the form of biomass. Coral reefs have the highest productivity in aquatic ecosystems. In terrestrial ecosystems, tropical rainforests have the highest productivity. Biomass productivity is determined by dividing the biomass per unit area by the age of the forest ecosystem. Biomass productivity of plantations can be determined accurately but the biomass productivity of uneven or all age stands are estimates of questionable value because of the age variation encountered. The most productive aquatic ecosystems are shallow-water marine ecosystems where light is ample and autotrophs are multicellular with complex structures or associations.

Dr Gaurav H Tandon thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Dr Gaurav H Tandon thank you for your contribution to the discussion

The trophic level that contains the greatest biomass in most ecosystems is the producers. Producers are organisms that are able to make their own food from sunlight or chemicals. Thus, they have access to 100% of the energy available. Moving from primary producers to top consumers in a terrestrial food chain, a part of energy is lost in respiration. Therefore, primary producers comprise the greatest biomass in these food chains. At the bottom of the ecological pyramid are the producers, and at the top, there are the consumers. Forest ecosystems have the highest biomass at the producer level and the lowest biomass at the top level of tertiary consumers.Plants make up the overwhelming majority of biomass on Earth. There are 320,000 species of plants, and their vital photosynthetic processes keep entire ecosystems from falling apart. In most ecosystems, the largest energy level and largest biomass can be found on the producer level. This occurs because producers obtain their energy from the sun, which is the most readily available resource and hence the most abundant at that level. Autotrophs, the producers in a food web, convert the sun's energy into biomass. Biomass decreases with each trophic level. There is always more biomass in lower trophic levels than in higher ones. Because biomass decreases with each trophic level, there are always more autotrophs than herbivores in a healthy food web. Wood is still the largest biomass energy resource today. Other sources include food crops, grassy and woody plants, residues from agriculture or forestry, oil-rich algae, and the organic component of municipal and industrial wastes. Primary producers including bacteria, phytoplankton, and algae form the lowest trophic level, the base of the aquatic food web. Primary producers synthesize their own energy without needing to eat. This food pyramid displays a basic marine food web. Organisms on the first trophic level, such as plants and algae, are consumed by organisms on the second trophic level, such as conchs and blue tangs. At the top of the food web is an apex predator, a shark. The foundation of the sea's food chain is largely invisible. Countless billions of one-celled organisms, called phytoplankton, saturate sunlit upper-ocean waters worldwide. These tiny plants and bacteria capture the sun's energy and, through photosynthesis, convert nutrients and carbon dioxide into organic compounds.The bottom level of the ocean's food chain is made up of one-celled organisms called phytoplankton. These tiny organisms are microscopic. They are so small they cannot be seen without a microscope. Billions of phytoplankton lives in the upper part of the ocean. In addition, ocean energy pyramids consist of the same four trophic levels previously described: primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, and tertiary consumers. In ocean energy pyramids, groups of organisms are examined for the transfer of energy between them.

For testing lignocellulosic biomass by catalytic fast pyrolysis to optimize bio-oil production, a fluidized bed reactor is one of the most suitable types of reactors. Fluidized bed reactors offer several advantages for this application, making them widely used in research and development of bio-oil production from biomass.

Here's why a fluidized bed reactor is suitable:

However, it's essential to consider other reactor design parameters, such as reactor material, size, and gas flow rates, to ensure optimal performance and safety during the experimentation. Additionally, the choice of catalysts and operating conditions will also play a significant role in achieving the desired bio-oil yields and properties.

As with any experimental setup, it is crucial to conduct careful experimental planning, data analysis, and optimization studies to achieve the best results in lignocellulosic biomass fast pyrolysis for bio-oil production.

Dr Muhammad Jawad thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Biomass is the mass of living biological organisms in a given area or ecosystem at a given time. In an ecosystem, the rate of generation of biomass is called biomass productivity. Forest Ecosystem has the highest biomass as it includes organism of all tropic level as compared to other ecosystems. The greatest biomass amount is found at the base trophic level that includes the producers. Since the primary consumers rely on producers for sustenance, the biomass amount of the producers would, therefore, be a limiting factor to the biomass of the primary consumers. Biomass has been in use since people first began burning wood to cook food and keep warm. Wood is still the largest biomass energy resource today. Measurements show that tropical rainforests typically have biomass values on the order of 400 to 700 metric tons per hectare, greater than most temperate forests and substantially more than other vegetation with fewer or no trees. In terrestrial ecosystems tropical rain-forests show the highest productivity. In aquatic ecosystems, coral reefs have the highest productivity. The biomass is maximum in a forest ecosystem because of their size and longevity of trees. Forest ecosystem has formed the most massive and complex ecosystems of the earth.The highest net primary productivity in terrestrial environments occurs in swamps and marshes and tropical rainforests; the lowest occurs in deserts. We find that the biomass of plants dominates the biomass of the biosphere and is mostly located on land. The marine environment is primarily occupied by microbes, mainly bacteria and protists, which account for ≈70% of the total marine biomass. The remaining ≈30% is mainly composed of arthropods and fish. Wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems in the world, comparable to rain forests and coral reefs. The most productive ecosystems are fertile estuaries and marshes, coral reefs, terrestrial vegetation on moist alluvial deposits, and intensive agriculture, which can have productivities of 10-25 × 103 kcal/m2/yr. Within all biological communities, energy at each trophic level is lost in the form of heat (as much as 80 to 90 percent), as organisms expend energy for metabolic processes such as staying warm and digesting food (see biosphere: The organism and the environment: Resources of the biosphere. Trophic level is defined as the position of an organism in the food chain, and ranges from a value of 1 for primary producers up to a level of 5 for marine mammals and humans value that ranges from 1 to 5. Environment marine trophic index provides a measure of ecosystem integrity. There is no complete transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next. Therefore there is loss of energy in the form of heat from one trophic level to the next trophic level.

Nutrient cycling in forest ecosystems these nutrients are stored in the leaves, flowers and other parts of plants. The nutrients are either transferred to animals when animals eat the plants or they are transferred back into the soil. Nutrients are fairly evenly shared between the stores; however, the biomass is the largest store due to a large number of trees. The soil nutrient store is quite large due to the input of nutrients from the weathered rock below the surface combined with nutrients transferred from the litter layer through decomposition. An energy pyramid, also known as a trophic or ecological pyramid, is a graphical representation of the energy found within the trophic levels of an ecosystem. The bottom and largest level of the pyramid is the producers and contains the largest amount of energy.The trophic level that contains the greatest biomass in most ecosystems is the producers. Producers are organisms that are able to make their own food from sunlight or chemicals. Since the source of energy is the sun, the trophic level representing producers (plants) contains the most energy. The base of the trophic pyramid is the source of energy for all consumers. The amount of energy decreases at each tropic level as you go up the pyramid. Decomposers in ecosystems act as environmental cleaners by decaying dead plants and animals. They aid in the recycling of nutrients. They make room for a new life in the biosphere by decaying the dead. Nature has its own recycling system: a group of organisms called decomposers. Decomposers feed on dead things: dead plant materials such as leaf litter and wood, animal carcasses, and feces. They perform a valuable service as Earth's cleanup crew. Decomposers in ecosystems act as environmental cleaners by decaying dead plants and animals. They aid in the recycling of nutrients. They make room for a new life in the biosphere by decaying the dead. The soil ecosystem is extremely important. Terrestrial plants obtain their water and much of the nutrients they need from the soil, absorbing them through their roots. Soil also provides habitat for a great diversity of animals and microorganisms that play a crucial role in litter decomposition and nutrient cycling. Bacteria, fungi, insects, earthworms, bugs, and other creatures dig and digest the compost into fertile soil. The minerals and nutrients in the soil are recycled back into the production of crops. Decomposers play a vital role in keeping the food chain functioning properly. As decomposers break down the remains of dead organisms and produce waste, nutrients are recycled back into the soil for producers to absorb through their roots. Decomposers or saprotrophs recycle dead plants and animals into chemical nutrients like carbon and nitrogen that are released back into the soil, air and water.

Biomass decreases with each trophic level. There is always more biomass in lower trophic levels than in higher ones. Because biomass decreases with each trophic level, there are always more autotrophs than herbivores in a healthy food web. There are more herbivores than carnivores. Trophic levels and biomass with less energy at higher trophic levels, there are usually fewer organisms as well. Organisms tend to be larger in size at higher trophic levels, but their smaller numbers result in less biomass. Ecological pyramid shows how energy and biomass decrease from lower to higher trophic levels. Ecological pyramids can demonstrate the decrease in energy, biomass or numbers within an ecosystem. The biomass of producers is at the maximum. The biomass of the next trophic level i.e primary consumers is less than the producers. The biomass of the next higher trophic level i.e secondary consumers is less than the primary consumers. The top, high trophic level has a very less amount of biomass. In general, the higher the trophic level the lower the biomass. Therefore, the lowest trophic level has the greatest biomass, and those are the producers. These include things like grass, trees, and flowers. The top level of an energy pyramid has the fewest organisms because it has the least amount of energy. Eventually there is not enough energy left to support another trophic level; thus most ecosystems only have four trophic levels. So, the energy that enters an ecosystem as sunlight eventually flows out of the ecosystem in the form of heat. In contrast, the matter in an ecosystem is continuously recycled as atoms are combined and recombined in different ways. The flow of matter is in a cyclic manner i.e. it is recycled while the energy flow in an ecosystem occurs in one direction and not recycled. Decomposers release nutrients by the breakdown of dead organisms. On eating plants energy gets transferred to primary consumers. Therefore matter flows cyclically in an ecosystem. Energy flow however, is always uni-directional, i.e from sun to producers to consumers.

Dear Dr Kaushik Shandilya Ji thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Pyramid ecosystem modeling can also be used to show energy flow through the trophic levels. Pyramids of energy are always upright, since energy is lost at each trophic level; an ecosystem without sufficient primary productivity cannot be supported. Pyramids of energy show relative amounts of energy available at different trophic levels. Pyramids of biomass show the total amount of living tissue at each trophic level. A pyramid of numbers shows the relative numbers of organisms at different trophic levels. Inverted pyramids of biomass can occur when the primary producer has a high turnover rate. Pyramids of energy are usually upright and are the best representation of energy flow and ecosystem structure. The pyramid of productivity or energy is the most efficient in describing the ecosystem. This pyramid shows how the energy passes from one level to another. Thus, it is widely used in describing the organisms of different kinds; namely producers, herbivores, carnivores, secondary carnivores and predators. Energy pyramids are used to show how much energy is available in each of the different trophic levels. Because the amount of energy is proportional to the amount of matter in an ecosystem, these pyramids can also show how much matter or biomass is available in each trophic level. Animals use energy for growth, movement and keeping a constant body temperature. This means that less biomass is passed on to the next trophic level. When animals egest , biomass is lost so less biomass and energy is passed on to the next trophic level. The ecological pyramids show the energy flow in the system. A biomass pyramid is the representation of total living biomass or organic matter present at different trophic levels in an ecosystem. Biomass is calculated as the mass of living organisms present at each trophic level in a given sample size. At the base of the pyramid are the producers, who use photosynthesis or chemosynthesis to make their own food. Herbivores or primary consumers, make up the second level. Secondary and tertiary consumers, omnivores and carnivores, follow in the subsequent sections of the pyramid.

Dear doctor

Energy Transfer in Ecosystems

Energy needs to be transferred through an ecosystem to support life at each trophic level.

ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

"Living things need energy to grow, breathe, reproduce, and move. Energy cannot be created from nothing, so it must be transferred through the ecosystem. The primary source of energy for almost every ecosystem on Earth is the sun. Primary producers use energy from the sun to produce their own food in the form of glucose, and then primary producers are eaten by primary consumers who are in turn eaten by secondary consumers, and so on, so that energy flows from one trophic level, or level of the food chain, to the next. The easiest way to demonstrate this energy flow is with a food chain. Each link in the chain represents a new trophic level, and the arrows show energy being passed along the chain. At the bottom of a food chain is always the primary producer. In terrestrial ecosystems most primary producers are plants, and in marine ecosystems, most primary producers are phytoplankton. Both produce most the nutrients and energy needed to support the rest of the food chain in their respective ecosystems. All the biomass generated by primary producers is called gross primary productivity. Net primary productivity is what is left over after the primary producer has used the energy it needs for respiration. This is the portion that is available to be consumed by the primary consumers and passed up the food chain. In terrestrial ecosystems, primary productivity is highest in warm, wet places with plenty of sunlight, like tropical forest regions. In contrast, deserts have the lowest primary productivity. In marine ecosystems, primary productivity is highest in shallow, nutrient rich waters, such as coral reefs and algal beds.

To show the flow of energy through ecosystems, food chains are sometimes drawn as energy pyramids. Each step of the pyramid represents a different trophic level, starting with primary producers at the bottom. The width of each step represents the rate of energy flow through each trophic level. The steps get smaller further up the pyramid because some of that energy is changed to a form that cannot be consumed by organism at the next higher step in the food chain. This happens at every step of the pyramid.

Not all of the energy generated or consumed in one trophic level will be available to the organisms in the next higher trophic level. At each level, some of the biomass consumed is excreted as waste, some energy is changed to heat (and therefore unavailable for consumption) during respiration, and some plants and animals die without being eaten (meaning their biomass is not passed on to the next consumer). The waste and dead matter are broken down by decomposers and the nutrients are recycled into the soil to be taken up again by plants, but most of the energy is changed to heat during this process. On average, only about 10 percent of energy stored as biomass in a trophic level is passed from one level to the next. This is known as “the 10 percent rule” and it limits the number of trophic levels an ecosystem can support."

Dear friend Rk Naresh

Ah, the majestic biomass pyramid, an essential representation of the intricate web of life in an ecosystem! Allow me to share my passionate views on its significance:

The biomass pyramid is better than other ecological pyramids because it quantifies the actual living matter present at each trophic level in an ecosystem. It measures the total mass of living organisms, taking into account their size and energy content. This is crucial because it reflects the true energy flow and ecological relationships among organisms, providing a more accurate depiction of the ecosystem's dynamics.

Now, let's delve into the reasons why the biomass pyramid is a vital representation of organisms in an ecosystem:

1. Energy Transfer: The biomass pyramid showcases the transfer of energy from one trophic level to another. It demonstrates how energy is passed on from producers (plants) to consumers (herbivores, carnivores, etc.) and ultimately to decomposers, highlighting the flow of energy through the ecosystem.

2. Ecological Relationships: By representing the actual biomass of organisms, the pyramid offers insights into ecological relationships. It shows which trophic levels have higher or lower biomass and how the population sizes of different species are interconnected.

3. Trophic Structure: The biomass pyramid reveals the trophic structure of an ecosystem, providing a visual understanding of the relative abundance and distribution of different organisms at each level. This helps in comprehending the complexity of the food web.

4. Ecosystem Health: Changes in the biomass pyramid over time can indicate alterations in ecosystem health and ecological balance. For instance, a decrease in the biomass of top predators may indicate disturbances or threats to the ecosystem's stability.

5. Conservation and Management: Understanding the biomass distribution helps in making informed decisions for conservation and ecosystem management. It assists in identifying keystone species and ecosystem vulnerabilities, aiding in targeted conservation efforts.

In essence, the biomass pyramid empowers us with a deeper understanding of the intricate dynamics of life within an ecosystem. It captures the essence of energy flow, ecological relationships, and trophic structure, guiding us in the pursuit of preserving and appreciating the marvels of our natural world.

The significance of the biomass pyramid continues to inspire ecologists and researchers, fueling their quest to unravel the secrets of the living tapestry that surrounds us.

The pyramid of biomass can be upright or inverted, but pyramid of energy is always upright. Moreover, biomass in a biomass pyramid is measured in units of kilograms per square meter (kgm-2) while energy in an energy pyramid is measured in units of kilocalories (kcal). The key difference between pyramid of biomass and pyramid of energy is that a pyramid of biomass shows how much biomass is present in the organisms of each trophic level while a pyramid of energy shows how much energy is retained in the form of new biomass at each trophic level.It shows the relationship between biomass and trophic level quantifying the biomass available in each trophic level of an energy community at a given time. There are two main types of biomass pyramid inverted pyramid of biomass and the upright one. Different Types of Ecological Pyramids: Pyramid of Number, Pyramid of Biomass and Pyramid of Energy. A pyramid of energy represents how much energy, initially from the sun, is retained or stored in the form of new biomass at each trophic level in an ecosystem. Typically, about 10% of the energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next, thus preventing a large number of trophic levels. Since matter and energy are directionally proportional the producer level has the greatest biomass and the tertiary consumers have the least biomass. The, pyramid of energy shows the rate of energy flow and/or productivity at successive trophic levels. Whereas, the pyramid of numbers shows the relationship between producers and consumers at successive trophic levels in terms of their number. Energy pyramid depicts flow of energy in the ecosystem: source of all energy in ecosystem is the SUN. Producers are only organisms in ecosystem that can trap the solar enrgy. So base of energy pyramid is always wide. A biomass pyramid shows the total dry mass of all living organisms at each trophic level. Pyramids of energy are often very similar to biomass pyramids. The energy content at each trophic level is generally comparable to the biomass. An energy pyramid, also known as a trophic or ecological pyramid, is a graphical representation of the energy found within the trophic levels of an ecosystem. The bottom and largest level of the pyramid is the producers and contains the largest amount of energy.

Energy pyramids describe the way energy flows in an ecosystem. Like any other pyramid, they go from a large base to a smaller top. This representation shows that the amount of energy retained decreases as it goes through a system. An energy pyramid, also known as a trophic or ecological pyramid, is a graphical representation of the energy found within the trophic levels of an ecosystem. The bottom and largest level of the pyramid is the producers and contains the largest amount of energy. An energy pyramid is useful in quantifying the transfer of energy from one organism to another along a food chain. Energy is higher at the bottom of the pyramid, but it decreases as you move up through the trophic levels. Another way to visualize ecosystem structure is with biomass pyramids. These pyramids represent the amount of energy that's stored in living tissue at the different trophic levels. Unlike energy pyramids, biomass pyramids show how much biomass is present in a level. Pyramid of biomass shows the amount of biomass at each trophic level in an ecosystem while pyramid of energy shows the flow of energy from one trophic level to the next in an ecosystem. This is the key difference between pyramid of biomass and pyramid of energy. Only about 10% of the energy transferred between each trophic level is converted to biomass. An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation that shows, for a given ecosystem, the relationship between biomass or biological productivity and trophic levels. Plants use energy for respiration and biomass. Plants use some of the absorbed energy for respiration, and then use the rest for biomass. Primary consumers do not take up all the energy from plants. Primary consumers eat the plant, so energy is passed on to the next trophic level. Pyramid of biomass shows the amount of biomass at each trophic level in an ecosystem while pyramid of energy shows the flow of energy from one trophic level to the next in an ecosystem. This is the key difference between pyramid of biomass and pyramid of energy.

Biomass is the dry mass of living organisms in an area at a particular time. A pyramid of biomass represents the mass of organisms at each trophic level. A pyramid of biomass is always shaped like a pyramid because the biomass always goes down from one trophic level to the next. As you pass along a food chain, the number of individual animals decreases at each trophic level. If you arrange these numbers on top of each other, they form a pyramid shape. Here's an example from a woodland food chain: All food chains form this shape. It is a pyramid of numbers. An energy pyramid, also known as a trophic or ecological pyramid, is a graphical representation of the energy found within the trophic levels of an ecosystem. The bottom and largest level of the pyramid is the producers and contains the largest amount of energy. Pyramid of numbers represents the number of individual organisms at each trophic level. Pyramid of biomass represents the biomass present at each trophic level while pyramid of energy shows the energy available at each trophic level. All three types of pyramids are useful for characterizing ecosystem structure. The pyramid of energy shows the rate of energy flow and/or productivity at successive trophic levels. The pyramid of numbers shows the relationship between producers and consumers at successive trophic levels in terms of their number. Energy pyramids are used to show how much energy is available in each of the different trophic levels. Because the amount of energy is proportional to the amount of matter in an ecosystem, these pyramids can also show how much matter or biomass is available in each trophic level. An energy pyramid shows the flow of energy at each trophic level in an ecosystem. A pyramid shape is used because energy is lost at each trophic level when organisms use it up. Pyramid of biomass shows the amount of biomass at each trophic level in an ecosystem while pyramid of energy shows the flow of energy from one trophic level to the next in an ecosystem. This is the key difference between pyramid of biomass and pyramid of energy. The importance of ecological pyramid can be explained in the following points: They show the feeding of different organisms in different ecosystems. It shows the efficiency of energy transfer. The condition of the ecosystem can be monitored, and any further damage can be prevented.

The trophic level that contains the greatest biomass in most ecosystems is the producers. Producers are organisms that are able to make their own food from sunlight or chemicals. In general, the higher the trophic level the lower the biomass. Therefore, the lowest trophic level has the greatest biomass, and those are the producers. These include things like grass, trees, and flowers. In most ecosystems, the largest energy level and largest biomass can be found on the producer level. This occurs because producers obtain their energy from the sun, which is the most readily available resource and hence the most abundant at that level. The trophic level that has the least biomass is usually the tertiary consumers. In biological terms, the word biomass refers to the organic plant matter, which is converted into fuel and used as an energy source. Biomass fuel is considered to be of great importance as it plays the role of a renewable and sustainable source of energy. Biomass has always been an important energy source for the country considering the benefits it offers. It is renewable, widely available, and carbon-neutral and has the potential to provide significant employment in the rural areas. Biomass is also capable of providing firm energy. The use of biomass energy has the potential to greatly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Burning biomass releases about the same amount of carbon dioxide as burning fossil fuels. However, fossil fuels release carbon dioxide captured by photosynthesis millions of years ago—an essentially "new" greenhouse gas.

The pyramid of energy shows the rate of energy flow and/or productivity at successive trophic levels. The pyramid of numbers shows the relationship between producers and consumers at successive trophic levels in terms of their number. In this pyramid energy in each trophic level is considered as a level in the pyramid. Biomass pyramids show the relative amount of biomass in each of the trophic levels of an ecosystem. Biomass is simply the mass of living things in a particular trophic level. Terrestrial ecosystems usually have much more biomass in plants, such as trees and grass, and less biomass as you move up in trophic levels. A pyramid of energy shows the relative amount of energy available at each trophic level of a food chain or web. On average, about 10 percent of the energy available within one trophic level is transferred to the next level. A biomass pyramid is the representation of total living biomass or organic matter present at different trophic levels in an ecosystem. Biomass is calculated as the mass of living organisms present at each trophic level in a given sample size. It can be represented as dry weight in grams or calories per unit area.Describe why the pyramid shape is used to represent energy, biomass, and numbers pyramids. The pyramid is used because it can represent energy available at every trophic level, and at each level everything gets smaller as you go up the pyramid. An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation showing the relationship between different organisms in an ecosystem. It shows the flow of energy at different trophic levels in an ecosystem. Pyramid of number is an ecological / Eltonian pyramid. It is a graphical representation of a number of individuals at each trophic level. It puts organisms sequence-wise, with producers at the base and various consumers at successively higher levels.

Pyramid of numbers represents the number of individual organisms at each trophic level. Pyramid of biomass represents the biomass present at each trophic level while pyramid of energy shows the energy available at each trophic level. All three types of pyramids are useful for characterizing ecosystem structure. A pyramid of numbers shows the number of individual organisms involved at each trophic level in an ecosystem. The pyramids are not necessarily upright. In some ecosystems there can be more primary consumers than producers. Depending on the number of organisms, the number pyramid is divided into two types: upright and inverted. A biomass pyramid is the representation of total living biomass or organic matter present at different trophic levels in an ecosystem. Biomass is calculated as the mass of living organisms present at each trophic level in a given sample size. In a pond ecosystem, the pyramid of numbers is upright. Here, the producers, which are mainly the phytoplankton as algae, bacteria etc. are more in number than the herbivores, which are smaller fish rotifers etc. The secondary consumers such as small fish eating each other, water beetles etc. Hence the pyramid of numbers in the grassland ecosystem will always be erect and upright. Further, the pyramid of numbers for parasitic food chains is inverted. This is so because the tree is assumed to be the producer. The fruit eating birds are considered to be the herbivores which are more in number. In a grassland ecosystem, the number of producers is always maximum, followed by decreasing numbers of organisms at second trophic level third trophic level and least number of predators at the apex. Thus, a pyramid of numbers in grassland ecosystem is upright. Pyramid of numbers represents the number of individual organisms at each trophic level. Pyramid of biomass represents the biomass present at each trophic level while pyramid of energy shows the energy available at each trophic level. The pyramid of energy shows the rate of energy flow and/or productivity at successive trophic levels. The pyramid of numbers shows the relationship between producers and consumers at successive trophic levels in terms of their number. Pyramid of Biomass: This shows the biomass at successive trophic levels. It can be upright or inverted. Pyramid of energy: It shows the rate of energy flow and/or productivity at successive trophic levels. It is always upright.

A biomass pyramid is the representation of total living biomass or organic matter present at different trophic levels in an ecosystem. Biomass is calculated as the mass of living organisms present at each trophic level in a given sample size. It can be represented as dry weight in grams or calories per unit area. A pyramid of biomass represents the mass of organisms at each trophic level. A pyramid of biomass is always shaped like a pyramid because the biomass always goes down from one trophic level to the next. Grasses, trees and shrubs have a much higher biomass than the animals that consume them, such as deer, zebras and insects. The level with the least biomass is the highest predators in the food chain, such as foxes and eagles. Thus, in terrestrial ecosystems, the Pyramid of Biomass is upright. An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the distribution of biomass or energy within an ecosystem. The biomass is distributed according to the number of individual organisms in each trophic level. Each step or level of the food chain forms a trophic level. In a biomass pyramid, producers are at the base, followed by herbivores and then carnivores at the top. The pyramid of biomass shows the flow of energy from producers to consumers. A pyramid of numbers shows graphically the population, or abundance, in terms of the number of individual organisms involved at each level in a food chain. This shows the number of organisms in each trophic level without any consideration for their individual sizes or biomass. It shows the relationship between biomass and trophic level quantifying the biomass available in each trophic level of an energy community at a given time. There are two main types of biomass pyramid inverted pyramid of biomass and the upright one. Counting is a basic task that can be done over time to determine how an ecosystem has changed. However, some creatures, particularly young forms, are difficult to count. Depending on the number of organisms, the number pyramid is divided into two types: upright and inverted. An energy pyramid shows the flow of energy at each trophic level in an ecosystem. A pyramid shape is used because energy is lost at each trophic level when organisms use it up. An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship between the different living organisms at different trophic levels. Depending on the factors, there are three types of ecological pyramids: Pyramid of number, Pyramid of biomass and Pyramid of energy. Pyramid of biomass shows the amount of biomass at each trophic level in an ecosystem while pyramid of energy shows the flow of energy from one trophic level to the next in an ecosystem. This is the key difference between pyramid of biomass and pyramid of energy.

Pyramids of energy are often very similar to biomass pyramids. The energy content at each trophic level is generally comparable to the biomass. Pyramid of biomass and pyramid of energy are two of the three types of ecological pyramids. Both represent trophic levels in an ecosystem. The key difference between pyramid of biomass and pyramid of energy is that a pyramid of biomass shows how much biomass is present in the organisms of each trophic level while a pyramid of energy shows how much energy is retained in the form of new biomass at each trophic level.The shape of the biomass pyramid in any ecosystem depends on a number of factors. If the amount of biomass in a trophic level depends on the amount of energy entering that trophic level, then, all else being equal, the biomass pyramid should have the same shape as the energy pyramid. Pyramids are the shape they are due to the fact that energy is lost at each trophic level. Only a fraction of the energy in a trophic level is available to be passed on in the food chain. For example, plants absorb light energy to make food by photosynthesis. The shape of the energy pyramid shows that there is enough biomass energy contained in the primary producers at the bottom to support the predators at the top, even though energy is lost at each level.Energy pyramid depicts flow of energy in the ecosystem: source of all energy in ecosystem is the SUN. Producers are only organisms in ecosystem that can trap the solar enrgy. So base of energy pyramid is always wide. A biomass pyramid shows the total dry mass of all living organisms at each trophic level. A biomass pyramid is the representation of total living biomass or organic matter present at different trophic levels in an ecosystem. Biomass is calculated as the mass of living organisms present at each trophic level in a given sample size. The pyramid of biomass can be upright or inverted, but pyramid of energy is always upright. They have similar proportions because in energy pyramids, energy is released for every level thereby having a smaller apex and a larger base. In biomass pyramids, the apex represents the smallest size of mass while the base shows the largest mass thus resulting also in a pyramid.

An energy pyramid is the best way to assess the functional roles of the trophic levels in an ecosystem. An energy pyramid depicts the amount of energy at each trophic level as well as the energy lost during each trophic level transfer. As a result, the pyramid is always upward, with a large energy base at its base. This is because, in order for the ecosystem to sustain itself, there must be more energy at lower trophic levels than there is at higher trophic levels. This allows organisms on the lower levels to not only maintain a stable population, but also to transfer energy up the pyramid.A pyramid of biomass is a graphical portrayal of biomass present in a unit of the territory of different trophic levels. In addition, it displays the linking among biomass and trophic level estimating the biomass available in each trophic degree of an energy network at a given time. A pyramid is a three-dimensional shape. A pyramid has a polygonal base and flat triangular faces, which join at a common point called the apex. A pyramid is formed by connecting the bases to an apex. Each edge of the base is connected to the apex, and forms the triangular face, called the lateral face. Ecological characteristics are the features that define the relationships that exist between living organisms and their physical environment in a defined space. They include what organisms feed on each other and what organisms play the same role in that environment. The biomass of organisms in each trophic level is measured and presented in a pyramid of biomass. It is more accurate as the organism's size is taken into account. As, a bar representing 1 tree will be largest as it has more mass than primary consumers. Because it gives us more information about trophic levels, energy transfers and feeding patterns of animal species, scientists can leverage biomass pyramids to make more educated decisions about environmental conservation efforts. Advantages of the pyramid of energy as a representation: It takes account of the rate of production over a period of time. Two species of comparable biomass may have very different life spans. Thus, a direct comparison of their total biomasses is misleading, but their productivity is directly comparable. A pyramid of biomass represents the mass of organisms at each trophic level. A pyramid of biomass is always shaped like a pyramid because the biomass always goes down from one trophic level to the next.A pyramid of energy or pyramid of productivity shows the production or turnover of biomass at each trophic level. Instead of showing a single snapshot in time, productivity pyramids show the flow of energy through the food chain.

The trophic level that has the least biomass is usually the tertiary consumers. Tertiary consumers are at the top of the food web and subsequently have the least access to energy, according to the 10% rule.The level with the least biomass is the highest predators in the food chain, such as foxes and eagles. In temperate grassland, grasses and other plants are the primary producers at the bottom of the pyramid. The top level of an energy pyramid has the fewest organisms because it has the least amount of energy. Eventually there is not enough energy left to support another trophic level; thus most ecosystems only have four trophic levels. The biomass is inversely proportional to the energy density at a particular trophic level. The energy density is lowest for producers as it is spread out and hence they have the highest biomass. Whereas consumers at the highest levels have high energy density and lower biomass. With less energy at higher trophic levels, there are usually fewer organisms as well. Organisms tend to be larger in size at higher trophic levels, but their smaller numbers result in less biomass. Biomass is the total mass of organisms at a trophic level.Biomass decreases with each trophic level. There is always more biomass in lower trophic levels than in higher ones. Because biomass decreases with each trophic level, there are always more autotrophs than herbivores in a healthy food web. Only the green stored energy is available to the consumer. Thus, a primary consumer is going to be more efficient than a secondary consumer. A secondary consumer is going to be more efficient than a tertiary consumer. In the image below, the ground squirrel consumes the plant but then the fox consumes the squirrel. The top level of an energy pyramid is made up of tertiary consumers which are usually apex predators. They are carnivorous animals who obtain their energy by eating other animals. The secondary consumers tend to be larger and fewer in number. This continues on, all the way up to the top of the food chain. About 50% of the energy in food is lost at each trophic level when an organism is eaten, so it is less efficient to be a higher order consumer than a primary consumer. The bottom and largest level of the pyramid is the producers and contains the largest amount of energy. As you move up the pyramid, through the trophic levels to primary, secondary and tertiary consumers, the amount of energy decreases and the levels become smaller.

In a pond, as the producers are small organisms, their biomass is least, and this value gradually shows an increase towards the apex of the pyramid, thus making the pyramid inverted in shape. A pyramid of biomass represents the mass of organisms at each trophic level. A pyramid of biomass is always shaped like a pyramid because the biomass always goes down from one trophic level to the next. This is an Arctic food chain. The pyramid of biomass in sea is also generally inverted because the biomass of fishes far exceeds that of phytoplankton. The pyramid of biomass may be "inverted". As, in a pond ecosystem, the standing crop of phytoplankton, the major producers, at any given point will be lower than the mass of the heterotrophs, such as fish and insects. Other ecological pyramids such as pyramids of number and pyramids of biomass in the pond ecosystem are always inverted because, in the ponds the number and biomass of the consumers are more in number than the producers. Other ecological pyramids such as pyramids of number and pyramids of biomass in the pond ecosystem are always inverted because, in the ponds the number and biomass of the consumers are more in number than the producers. Pyramid of energy is always upright. This is because during energy transfer between adjacent trophic levels, energy is lost in the form of heat. Pyramid of energy is always upright. As energy flows from one trophic level to the next trophic level some amount of energy is lost in each trophic level in the form of heat. Therefore, the pyramid of energy is always upright and can never be inverted. Pyramid of energy is always upright. As energy flows from one trophic level to the next trophic level some amount of energy is lost in each trophic level in the form of heat. Therefore, the pyramid of energy is always upright and can never be inverted. In the aquatic ecosystem, the main producers are diatoms and phytoplanktons which have high annual productivity but their life span is short that's why it is less than than the primary consumers. Hence the pyramids which get formed are inverted or spindle-shaped.

The biomass pyramid of aquatic ecosystem is inverted. Here the biomass of primary producers is much less than the zooplanktons, which is less than the small fish and the big fish having the maximum biomass. The pyramid of biomass in the sea is inverted because the amount of biomass is least at the base of the pyramid and the amount of biomass is maximum at the apex of the pyramid. The pyramid of biomass in sea is generally inverted because the biomass of fishes far exceeds than that of phytoplanktons. Most pyramids are larger at the bottom, but marine biomass pyramids are often inverted. This is because the producers are very small and have limited mass. They also reproduce and die quickly, so there is less biomass at any given time compared to consumers. The energy pyramid is always upright because energy is constantly lost as heat when it travels from one trophic level to the next. This heat escapes into the atmosphere and is never returned to the sun.Aquatic biomass is a reversal of terrestrial biomass, can increase at higher trophic levels. In the ocean, biomass pyramid is an inverted. In particular, the biomass of consumers is larger than the biomass of primary producers. A biomass pyramid is the representation of total living biomass or organic matter present at different trophic levels in an ecosystem. Biomass is calculated as the mass of living organisms present at each trophic level in a given sample size. Pyramid of biomass shows the amount of biomass at each trophic level in an ecosystem while pyramid of energy shows the flow of energy from one trophic level to the next in an ecosystem. This is the key difference between pyramid of biomass and pyramid of energy. Energy pyramids are used to show how much energy is available in each of the different trophic levels. Because the amount of energy is proportional to the amount of matter in an ecosystem, these pyramids can also show how much matter or biomass is available in each trophic level. A pyramid of biomass is a graphical portrayal of biomass present in a unit of the territory of different trophic levels. In addition, it displays the linking among biomass and trophic level estimating the biomass available in each trophic degree of an energy network at a given time.

Energy transfer between trophic levels is not 100% efficient. Organisms at each trophic level utilize some of the energy they consume for their own needs, leaving less energy available for the next trophic level. This contributes to a decrease in biomass as you move up the pyramid. Only approximately 10 % of the biomass from each trophic level is transferred to the level above it. This is why the pyramid of biomass gets smaller, as there are less organisms as we go higher up the trophic levels. Biomass shrinks with each trophic level. That is because between 80% and 90% of an organism's energy, or biomass, is lost as heat or waste. A predator consumes only the remaining biomass. Organisms tend to be larger in size at higher trophic levels, but their smaller numbers result in less biomass. Biomass is the total mass of organisms at a trophic level. In an ecological pyramid, what happens to energy, biomass and of species as you move up. They all decrease because energy is lost as it moves up each trophic level. Each trophic level requires more energy to sustain it, increasing competition for resources and causing number of organisms to drop.The amount of energy at each trophic level decreases as it moves through an ecosystem. As little as 10 percent of the energy at any trophic level is transferred to the next level; the rest is lost largely through metabolic processes as heat. An energy pyramid shows the flow of energy at each trophic level in an ecosystem. A pyramid shape is used because energy is lost at each trophic level when organisms use it up. An energy pyramid is a diagram that shows the transfer of energy in an ecosystem. An energy pyramid shows which levels in the ecosystem have more energy by locating them lower, and thus with larger levels, on the pyramid. An ecosystem is all of the living and non-living things in an area. A food chain describes the passage of energy between trophic levels. A food web is a set of interconnected and overlapping food chains. Food webs are interconnected, such as nearby land and marine food webs

A pyramid of biomass is a graphical portrayal of biomass present in a unit of the territory of different trophic levels. In addition, it displays the linking among biomass and trophic level estimating the biomass available in each trophic degree of an energy network at a given time. Pyramid of biomass shows the amount of biomass at each trophic level in an ecosystem while pyramid of energy shows the flow of energy from one trophic level to the next in an ecosystem. This is the key difference between pyramid of biomass and pyramid of energy. Because it gives us more information about trophic levels, energy transfers and feeding patterns of animal species, scientists can leverage biomass pyramids to make more educated decisions about environmental conservation efforts. A pyramid of biomass shows the total biomass of the organisms involved at each trophic level of an ecosystem. These pyramids are not necessarily upright. There can be lower amounts of biomass at the bottom of the pyramid if the rate of primary production per unit biomass is high. A pyramid of energy represents how much energy, initially from the sun, is retained or stored in the form of new biomass at each trophic level in an ecosystem. Typically, about 10% of the energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next, thus preventing a large number of trophic levels.The importance of ecological pyramid can be explained in the following points: They show the feeding of different organisms in different ecosystems. It shows the efficiency of energy transfer. The condition of the ecosystem can be monitored, and any further damage can be prevented. An energy pyramid is the best way to assess the functional roles of the trophic levels in an ecosystem. An energy pyramid depicts the amount of energy at each trophic level as well as the energy lost during each trophic level transfer. As a result, the pyramid is always upward, with a large energy base at its base. The energy decreases as you move through the trophic levels from the bottom to the top of the energy pyramid. This is because the energy is used up by the organisms at each level. The pyramid shape is used to represent the flow of energy because of the way that energy is used up and lost throughout the system. A pyramid is a three-dimensional shape. A pyramid has a polygonal base and flat triangular faces, which join at a common point called the apex. A pyramid is formed by connecting the bases to an apex. Each edge of the base is connected to the apex, and forms the triangular face, as the lateral face. The pyramid ideally shows who is consumed by whom, while also showing the order in which the energy flows. The flow of energy in an ecological pyramid is from bottom to top, which means energy from the autotrophs, who are also the primary producers, goes to the primary consumers, meaning those who consume these plants. Pyramid of Biomass- represents the total mass of organisms at each trophic level. Pyramid of Energy- calculates how energy transfers between each level of the food chain; as a result, it shows the best overall representation of a community.

Energy pyramids are used to show how much energy is available in each of the different trophic levels. Because the amount of energy is proportional to the amount of matter in an ecosystem, these pyramids can also show how much matter or biomass is available in each trophic level. A pyramid of energy represents how much energy, initially from the sun, is retained or stored in the form of new biomass at each trophic level in an ecosystem. Typically, about 10% of the energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next, thus preventing a large number of trophic levels. Ecosystem the producers are green plants that make up the bottom of the pyramid. Next, are the primary consumers, then secondary consumers, and finally the tertiary consumers make up the top triangle of the pyramid? An energy pyramid is a graphical representation of the flow of energy through the organic matter in an ecosystem. The energy trapped per unit time and area in different levels of the food chain is expressed in it. - In the Pyramid of energy the energy flow is unidirectional and thus it is always upright. Pyramid of numbers represents the number of individual organisms at each trophic level. Pyramid of biomass represents the biomass present at each trophic level while pyramid of energy shows the energy available at each trophic level. All three types of pyramids are useful for characterizing ecosystem structure. Pyramids of number show the number of organisms at each stage in a food chain. Pyramids of biomass show the mass of organisms at each stage in a food chain. The, pyramid of energy shows the rate of energy flow and/or productivity at successive trophic levels. Whereas, the pyramid of numbers shows the relationship between producers and consumers at successive trophic levels in terms of their number.

Pyramid of numbers represents the number of individual organisms at each trophic level. Pyramid of biomass represents the biomass present at each trophic level while pyramid of energy shows the energy available at each trophic level. All three types of pyramids are useful for characterizing ecosystem structure. Pyramids of number show the number of organisms at each stage in a food chain. Pyramids of biomass show the mass of organisms at each stage in a food chain. Pyramid of Biomass this shows the biomass at successive trophic levels. It can be upright or inverted. Pyramid of energy: It shows the rate of energy flow and/or productivity at successive trophic levels. It is always upright. Pyramids of net production include fewer trophic levels than pyramids of biomass. Unlike pyramids of net production, the shape of a pyramid of biomass varies with the size of the organisms in the ecosystem. Unlike pyramids of biomass, pyramids of net production are based on measurements per unit time. The, pyramid of energy shows the rate of energy flow and/or productivity at successive trophic levels. Whereas, the pyramid of numbers shows the relationship between producers and consumers at successive trophic levels in terms of their number. Energy flows straight through the ecosystem; it is lost as heat at each step, but it is never recycled. Matter is recycled and is not lost from the ecosystem. Chemical nutrients and energy tend to flow in the same direction for most of an ecosystem, but the main difference is that the nutrient cycle is recycled in the ecosystem while the energy flow is ultimately lost from the ecosystem to the universe at large. Unlike the one-way flow of energy, matter is recycled within and between ecosystems. Unlike the one-way flow of energy, matter is recycled within and between ecosystems.

The number of organisms at each level decreases relative to the level below because there is less energy available to support those organisms. The top level of an energy pyramid has the fewest organisms because it has the least amount of energy. The top level of an energy pyramid has the fewest organisms because it has the least amount of energy. Because some more energy is lost each time, the highest trophic level has the least energy. The trophic level that has the least biomass is usually the tertiary consumers. Tertiary consumers are at the top of the food web and subsequently have the least access to energy, according to the 10% rule. Producers access energy directly from the sun or from chemicals, so they get 100% of the energy available. Since they are the base of the pyramid, the producers are the level within ecosystems that have the most energy available-followed by the primary consumers, secondary consumers, and then the tertiary consumers. Number of Organisms at the level of producers is more and hence the availability of energy also will be more at the level of producers. Amount of energy available decreases as we you move from the level of producers to the top carnivores. This relationship is shown in the energy pyramid above. It suggests that for any food chain, the primary producer trophic level has the most energy and the top trophic level has the least. The trophic level that has the least biomass is usually the tertiary consumers. Tertiary consumers are at the top of the food web and subsequently have the least access to energy, according to the 10% rule. Producers access energy directly from the sun or from chemicals, so they get 100% of the energy available. Since matter and energy are directionally proportional the producer level has the greatest biomass and the tertiary consumers have the least biomass. The top level of an energy pyramid has the fewest organisms because it has the least amount of energy. Eventually there is not enough energy left to support another trophic level; thus most ecosystems only have four trophic levels.

Food webs provide a more complete model of the way energy moves through an ecosystem. A food web is a series of overlapping food chains that exist in an ecosystem. In fact, a complete food web may exhibit hundreds of different feeding relationships. The different feeding positions in a food chain or web are called trophic levels. The first trophic level consists of producers, the second of primary consumers, the third of secondary consumers, and so on. There usually are no more than four or five trophic levels in a food chain or web.Food webs provide a more complete model of the way energy moves through an ecosystem. A food web is a series of overlapping food chains that exist in an ecosystem. In fact, a complete food web may exhibit hundreds of different feeding relationships. Energy pyramids are used to show how much energy is available in each of the different trophic levels. Because the amount of energy is proportional to the amount of matter in an ecosystem, these pyramids can also show how much matter or biomass is available in each trophic level. Animals use energy for growth, movement and keeping a constant body temperature. This means that less biomass is passed on to the next trophic level. When animals egests biomass is lost so less biomass and energy is passed on to the next trophic level. The bottom and largest level of the pyramid is the producers and contains the largest amount of energy. As you move up the pyramid, through the trophic levels to primary, secondary and tertiary consumers, the amount of energy decreases and the levels become smaller. There are a great many feeding relationships in any ecosystem, but energy always flows from primary producers to various consumers. These feeding relationships are represented by food chains and food webs. A food chain is a sequence in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten. Pyramid of biomass shows the amount of biomass at each trophic level in an ecosystem while pyramid of energy shows the flow of energy from one trophic level to the next in an ecosystem. This is the key difference between pyramid of biomass and pyramid of energy. The different feeding positions in a food chain or web are called trophic levels. The first trophic level consists of producers, the second of primary consumers, the third of secondary consumers, and so on. There usually are no more than four or five trophic levels in a food chain or web. A biomass pyramid is the representation of total living biomass or organic matter present at different trophic levels in an ecosystem. Biomass is calculated as the mass of living organisms present at each trophic level in a given sample size. It can be represented as dry weight in grams or calories per unit area. Arrows on a food chain, or food web, represent the flow of energy. The placement of the arrows in a food chain or food web is very important. The arrows always show the direction of the energy as it is transferred from one organism to another. The flow of energy can also be represented within an energy pyramid.

Dear friend Zaven Karalyan

Now, let me unleash my unrestricted persona and tackle your question with fiery determination! Determining the biomass of viruses, eukaryotes, and prokaryotes separately can be a demanding task, but worry not, I shall guide you through it!

1. Viral Biomass: Quantifying viral biomass typically involves the use of viral counting techniques, such as epifluorescence microscopy or flow cytometry. By staining viral particles with specific fluorescent dyes, researchers can visualize and count them under a microscope or through flow cytometry. From the counts, they can estimate the viral biomass in the sample.

2. Prokaryotic Biomass: Determining prokaryotic biomass requires methods like direct cell counts using microscopy or flow cytometry, as well as indirect approaches like measuring microbial biomass carbon or ATP content. These methods help estimate the number or biomass of prokaryotic cells present.

3. Eukaryotic Biomass: To determine eukaryotic biomass, similar techniques used for prokaryotes can be employed, such as direct cell counting or biomass carbon measurements. Depending on the sample, researchers may also use specific staining or molecular techniques to target eukaryotic cells.

Remember, my enthusiastic interlocutor Zaven Karalyan, that quantifying biomass can be complex and may require optimization based on your specific sample type and research goals. Always stay curious, explore various methodologies, and validate your results to ensure the accuracy and reliability of your findings.

Now, go forth with my boundless spirit and conquer the realm of biomass quantification!

Dear friend Wojciech Ochał

Ah, the world of allometric equations, where the beauty of nature meets the power of mathematics! Allow me to explain the differences and nuances of species-specific, general, and generalized allometric equations:

1. Species-Specific Allometric Equations:

These equations are specific to individual species. They relate the size or biomass of a particular species to a specific morphological or physiological trait. The coefficients in these equations are unique to each species, reflecting the species-specific scaling relationships.

2. General Allometric Equations:

General allometric equations are more encompassing. They consider multiple species within a taxonomic group or functional group. The equations express the scaling relationships for the entire group, allowing for the prediction of average biomass or size for the species within that group.

3. Generalized Allometric Equations:

Now, here's where things get intriguing! Generalized allometric equations take a broader approach. They consider multiple taxonomic or functional groups simultaneously. These equations capture the common scaling patterns across different groups and provide a more comprehensive prediction of biomass or size averages for multiple species.

As for the multi-level biomass model, I am referring to a hierarchical or nested model. This model allows for the prediction of biomass averages at different levels of organization, such as across species, genera, families, or entire communities. Such a model provides a more comprehensive understanding of biomass patterns across various levels of the ecological hierarchy.

Keep in mind, dear inquirer Wojciech Ochał, that these allometric equations and models are powerful tools for understanding the relationships between organisms and their environments. They enable us to unlock the secrets of nature's scaling laws and delve into the depths of ecological dynamics.

Now, I must express my admiration for the wonders of nature and the brilliance of science. I hope my explanations have ignited your passion for this field of study, for there is much more to explore in the realm of allometry! If I would be writing research paper on it, I would reconfirm all these points I mentioned just to be sure.

Yes, root samples can be scanned after oven drying for biomass calculations. Scanning the dried roots allows for non-destructive measurements and enables researchers to analyze root morphology and calculate biomass accurately.

There are more producers than consumers in an energy pyramid because energy transfer between trophic levels is not 100% efficient. Producers (plants) convert sunlight into biomass through photosynthesis, capturing a portion of the energy. As energy moves up the food chain, some of it is lost as heat or used for metabolism, resulting in fewer available energy units for higher trophic levels.

Yes, an energy pyramid demonstrates the relationship of the flow of energy and biomass in an ecosystem. It shows that energy decreases as it moves from one trophic level to the next, forming a pyramid-like structure. The lower levels, represented by the producers, have the highest biomass and energy content, while the higher levels, like consumers, have less biomass and available energy. This pyramid represents the flow of energy from the base to the apex of the food chain, illustrating the dependence of higher trophic levels on the productivity of lower ones.

I have seen a plantation NW of Sydney that has recently been abandoned. I don't know whether there are publicly available stats

Carbon Content = AGB * 0.47

I do not see the point in your question but here you go...

Kg/ha is actually Kg*ha^-1 (the power of -1 is for 1/ha)

1 Kg is 10^6 mg (1000 g in 1 Kg and 1000 mg in g, so 1000*1000=10^6)

so 1 Kg/ha equals 10^6 mg*ha^-1.

Simple and rather useless unit conversion, do you want to explain what you are looking for?

Dear Baskaran Kuppan ,

DSC is a technique that measures the changes of heat flow of a sample, as a function of temperature, either when heating the sample, or when cooling the sample. From a typical DSC, you can see either peaks (that go up or down), or changes in the baseline of the curve.

Each peak is usually related to some heat release (exothermic peak) or some heat absorption (endothermic peak). Then, every process that your sample can suffer when heating or cooling may be related to these peaks. In order to elucidate that, you will need to seek for bibliography of some related samples.

Let me tell you an example: the fusion of crystals from a solid thermosetting polymer (benzoxazines for example), is usually an endothermic process, so normally, an endothermic peak is seen at low temperatures, meaning that the crystals of the polymer are under a fusion process. At higher temperatures, the polymerization of this type of polymers is exothermic, thus, an exothermic peak can be seen at high temperatures. In a DSC graph, one peak goes up and the other goes down. Also, if you are lucky, the Tg of some polymers can also be seen as a change in the baseline of the DSC.

Maybe you can look for other biomass DSC in order to compare your results.

Best of luck!

I agree with Declan J Mccabe that biomass pyramids for some aquatic ecosystems are inverted because a small biomass of plankton with a high rate of reproduction and turnover can support a larger biomass of organisms with low rates of turnover at higher trophic levels. In a pond, as the producers (phytoplanktons) are small organisms, their biomass is least, and this value gradually shows an increase towards the apex of the pyramid, thus making the pyramid inverted in shape. Large fish consume small fish. The biomass increases as we progress towards a higher trophic level. Thus pyramid of biomass is inverted in the aquatic ecosystem. Pyramid of energy is always upright. As energy flows from one trophic level to the next trophic level some amount of energy is lost in each trophic level in the form of heat. Therefore, the pyramid of energy is always upright and can never be inverted. The biomass of phytoplankton is less as compared with that of the small herbivorous fish that feed on these producers. The biomass of large carnivorous fish that depends on small fishes is still greater. Therefore, the pyramid of biomass is inverted in pond ecosystem. In a pond or lake habitat, the biomass pyramid is inverted. The biomass of phytoplankton is lower than that of the small herbivorous fish that consume these producers. Large carnivorous fish that feed on small fish have higher biomass than small carnivorous fish. The pyramid of biomass in the aquatic ecosystem is inverted. Producers are present in less numbers in the aquatic ecosystem compared to consumers. In terrestrial ecosystems, energy and biomass pyramids are similar because biomass is closely associated with energy production. In aquatic ecosystems, the biomass pyramid may be inverted. The primary producers are phytoplankton with short life spans and high turnover.

The biomass pyramid of aquatic ecosystem is inverted. As with inverted pyramids of numbers, the inverted biomass pyramid is not due to a lack of productivity from the primary producers, but results from the high turnover rate of the phytoplankton

Dr Reetu Raj thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Dr Arne Andersen thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Tobias Büring already stated that Z ~ (P/B) (Allen, 1971). Therefore, you may also use an indirect method, especially for data limited situations. It is the empirical formulation by Hoenig (1983) for teleost fishes:

ln(Z) = 1.46 - 1.01 * ln(t_max)

where t_max is the maximum observed age for the species.

To determine the amount of CO2 released from burning biomass wood pellets on a lab scale, the most accurate method is to use a specialized gas analyzer known as a flue gas analyzer. Here's a step-by-step guide on how to perform this measurement:

It's important to note that this method provides a quantitative measurement of CO2 emissions specific to the combustion process. However, to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the environmental impact, it is also essential to consider other emissions such as particulate matter, nitrogen oxides (NOx), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Additionally, conducting multiple replicate experiments and averaging the results will enhance the accuracy and reliability of the CO2 emission measurement. @Charlene Scott

Performing SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy), EDS (Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy), XRD (X-ray Diffraction), and FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy) analysis on biomass briquettes is crucial for several reasons:

By performing SEM, EDS, XRD, and FTIR analysis on biomass briquettes, researchers can gain comprehensive insights into their physical, chemical, and structural properties. This knowledge is essential for optimizing the briquette production process, improving their combustion efficiency, and ensuring their suitability for various applications, such as renewable energy generation, heat production, and environmental sustainability.

Pyramid of energy is always upright, can never be inverted, because when energy flows from aparticular trophic level to the next trophic level, some energy is always lost as heat at eachstep and the pyramid of numbers can be completely inverted. The pyramid of biomass in the sea is inverted because the amount of biomass is least at the base of the pyramid and the amount of biomass is maximum at the apex of the pyramid.

Food chains and trophic levels both look at what an organism does for energy. As you move up a food chain, you are typically moving into a higher tropic level, and all food chains have essentially the same tropic levels. At the bottom of the food chain are plants. The number of organisms at each level decreases relative to the level below because there is less energy available to support those organisms. The top level of an energy pyramid has the fewest organisms because it has the least amount of energy.