Astrophysics - Science topic

Is the question answerable?

What factors and caveats apply to this question?

Does such a ratio exist?

Dear ResearchGate Community, Scholars, Seekers, and Visionaries,

In what may be one of the most consequential questions in all of science, philosophy, and the destiny of our species, I invite you to participate in a landmark discussion:

Context & Catalyst: Just yesterday, scientists announced the strongest evidence to date for potential extraterrestrial life: the detection of dimethyl sulfide (DMS) and dimethyl disulfide (DMDS) in the atmosphere of exoplanet K2-18b, 124 light-years away. These compounds are primarily produced by microbial life on Earth, sparking a wave of global excitement. The findings—based on James Webb Space Telescope observations—were made at a 99.7% confidence level (three-sigma), but still fall short of the five-sigma threshold required for scientific confirmation. Moreover, alternate non-biological explanations remain plausible.

This raises profound questions: Are we witnessing the dawn of confirmed alien life? Or are we being misled by statistical mirages, wishful interpretations, and a fundamental misunderstanding of cosmic rarity?

Featured Article: I invite you to engage with and respond to my newly published, groundbreaking interdisciplinary synthesis:

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.24280.61445

The paper rigorously examines the question using data from astrobiology, planetary science, evolutionary biology, instrumental limitations, anthropic reasoning, and spiritual-scientific paradigms. It concludes—after integrating all current knowledge—that Earth remains, with high certainty, the only known cradle of life in the universe. A bold but evidence-based conclusion.

The Ultimate Discussion Begins Here: Can we ever answer this question with 100% certainty? Is K2-18b truly a sign of life—or just another scientific “red herring”? What roles do science, philosophy, and metaphysical traditions play in this verdict? Should we adopt a default assumption of solitude until irrefutable proof arises?

Join the Discussion that Will Define an Era: This is not just another thread—it’s a historic convergence of disciplines. Your insights here could shape global scientific dialogue, redefine our understanding of life’s place in the cosmos, and contribute to a conversation worthy of accolades, recognition, and timeless significance.

Let’s go beyond the noise. Let’s seek the ultimate truth. Are we alone—or are we simply not yet wise enough to know?

I welcome your thoughts, critiques, references, and visionary interpretations. Let this be a thread that unites physicists, philosophers, astrobiologists, and all curious minds across continents and paradigms.

With respect and anticipation,

(Author of “The Final Answer: Does Life Exist Beyond Earth?” | DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.24280.61445)

The Hubble tension is the observation that redshifts rise more rapidly with distance in the local Universe than predicted in the LCDM standard cosmological paradigm calibrated to fit the pattern of anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation from the early Universe. Given the many successes of LCDM elsewhere, might this indicate that we are in a large local void?

There is after all strong evidence for this in terms of the KBC void (Keenan+ 2013). Not to mention that solutions to the Hubble tension prior to recombination would cause the universe to be younger by almost a billion years, which contradicts the ages of the oldest stars and cosmic chronometers (Arxiv:2412.13045). What do people think of the idea that outflow from a local void is responsible for the Hubble tension?

Dr. Marco Pereira critiques the evaluation of varying gravitational constant (G) models, particularly those derived from Lunar Laser Ranging (LLR) data, Type Ia Supernovae (SN1a), and the Faint Young Sun Paradox. His argument revolves around confirmation bias and methodological flaws in the studies that claim G has remained nearly constant over time.

Pereira asserts that all these studies exhibit confirmation bias, as they:

He argues that proper treatment of G variation would eliminate the need for dark matter, dark energy, and space stretching, fundamentally challenging mainstream cosmology.

Dr. Pereira would be happy to present these conclusions in a published article in a mainstream journal. The problem is the obstinate censorship.

Complementary Reading:

SSRN Abstracts

# HU-The Big Pop Cosmogenesis

# The Hypergeometrical Universe

Docker Images

docker pull ny2292000/hu_galaxy_package

Repositories

It is extremely hard to parse across disciplines for this information- so have you encountered any anomalies or inconsistencies in SR in your field/research?

I am an independent researcher from Bangladesh and completed my BSc and MSc in Mathematics. I am currently doing my research in Astronomy. But for me it is too hard to build my career in this field alone. Is there any way to get a supervisor or join a team?

I believe Einstein provided one of the most intriguing designs for an experiment. Let me illustrate this with an example.

And that’s it — with this design of experimentation, we can propose a new paradigm shift in science.

Kindly refer to the attached presentation for further details.

The available source https://ingenieria.uatx.mx/orionfrg/cry/ currently doesn't have the dataset. The existing artIcles also mentioned the link. However, unable to find the dataset.

I would like to publish my Scientific Preprint Paper free-of-charge in an international Astrophysics journal with a satisfactory Impact Factor. Can you please suggest such a journal?

I have published my Research Results on a New Orbital Model for Moving Bodies in the Universe that I am asserting as a result of my scientific analysis, which can be found below:

"Everything Is A Circle: A New Model For Orbits Of Bodies In The Universe"

(Paperback Book) https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B08NYG14X8

(Kindle eBook) https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B08PVS2FBW

I will be presenting this work to the general scientific community at #COSPAR in Sydney, Australia, which will be broadcast Live according to Congress schedule on February 2, 2021

and will be available as Video-On-Demand in more detail.

To provide an introductory idea for readers and scientific community in general, here is a short video giving an overview description of the main and most significant findings:

To exactly quantify the afterlife, first we must confirm, then chart, the probable multiverse through engineering. Then we must engineer a machine to find where one’s individuality goes throughout the multiverse, after death in this universe.

1)https://www.researchgate.net/publication/385291344_A_New_Type_of_Humanities

2)https://www.researchgate.net/publication/385661727_AI_Afterlife_Preview

3)https://www.researchgate.net/publication/385818307_Concisely_Quantifying_Consciousness

Upcoming Events "CONFERENCES" in Berlin, Germany |October 24-26 2025.

KAGRA is said to be less sensitive to claimed LIGO type gravitational wave signals by two orders of magnitude as compared to the LIGO/VIRGO detectors. After KAGRA has substantially improved their seismic suspension systems it rather appears likely that KAGRA was successful in reducing the level of crackling noise* by two orders of magnitude and thereby increased the signal-to-noise ratio by two orders of magnitude.

Soumendra Nath Thakur

31-08-2024

Note: Matter mass Mᴍ is understood as the combined mass of normal matter (such as baryonic matter) and dark matter.

Effective dark energy, considered a by-product of negative effective mass, arises from the intricate interplay of potential, kinetic, and gravitational dynamics in the universe. This concept challenges traditional views by suggesting that dark energy is not a separate entity but rather a consequence of negative effective mass. The fundamental equation, PEᴛₒₜᴜₙᵢᵥ ∝ Mᵉᶠᶠᴜₙᵢᵥ, establishes a direct relationship between the universe's potential energy and its effective mass, highlighting their intrinsic connection.

In the early universe, effective mass played a critical role in determining the potential energy. The universal force was necessary to convert this potential energy into kinetic energy, facilitating the rapid expansion of the universe. As the effective mass decreased, acceleration increased, reflecting the dynamics of this early rapid expansion, as described by the equation Fᴜₙᵢᵥ = Mᵉᶠᶠᴜₙᵢᵥ · aᵉᶠᶠᴜₙᵢᵥ. This equation illustrates that the universal force is directly proportional to effective acceleration, offering key insights into the universe's expansion dynamics.

As the universe continued to evolve, its potential energy became influenced by both matter mass and effective mass, including contributions from dark energy and other effective masses. Later, the universal force was shaped by both matter and effective mass, with effective acceleration inversely related to the combined mass. The ongoing generation of dark energy and its dominance in gravitational dynamics are thus explained by the relationship between effective mass and gravitational effects, suggesting a repulsive gravitational force that significantly influences the universe's structure and evolution.

Effective dark energy can thus be seen as a by-product of negative effective mass, arising from the complex interrelations of potential, kinetic, and gravitational forces, and reflecting the apparent reduction in invariant matter mass over time.

Reference: Chernin, A. D., Bisnovatyi-Kogan, G. S., Teerikorpi, P., Valtonen, M. J., Byrd, G. G., & Merafina, M. (2013). Dark energy and the structure of the Coma cluster of galaxies. Astronomy and Astrophysics, 553, A101. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201220781

The universal force Fᴜₙᵢᵥ is defined by the product of the effective acceleration aᵉᶠᶠᴜₙᵢᵥ and the combined inverse contributions of two types of mass: the variable effective mass Mᵉᶠᶠᴜₙᵢᵥ and the constant matter mass Mᴍᴜₙᵢᵥ. This relationship emphasizes that the universal force depends not only on acceleration but also on the dynamic interplay between these masses. The effective mass reflects the system’s response to dynamic factors such as motion and gravitational interactions, and it can differ from the constant matter mass by varying according to system conditions.

The universal force and acceleration increase or decrease proportionally with the combined reciprocal masses, where variations in the effective mass directly influence acceleration and the resulting universal force. As the effective mass decreases, acceleration increases, and vice versa. This relationship aligns with the interpretation of "negative effective mass," where changes in the dynamic state of the universe alter gravitational interactions.

The concept of "negative effective mass" arises from this interpretation of effective mass. When extended to dark energy's influence on gravitational dynamics, it captures the idea that the effective mass may exhibit properties akin to a negative effective density, leading to repulsive gravitational effects. In this context, "negative effective mass" describes how the dynamic properties of dark energy counteract gravitational attraction, contrasting with the attractive behaviour of conventional matter.

The effective mass Mᵉᶠᶠᴜₙᵢᵥ reflects the apparent mass loss or gain relative to the constant matter mass Mᴍᴜₙᵢᵥ. When there is an apparent mass loss, the effective mass increases to maintain balance within the system’s dynamics, suggesting that under certain conditions, the effective mass could be perceived as "negative." This negative value provides a framework for understanding inverse gravitational effects observed with dark energy, where repulsive dynamics challenge traditional gravitational interactions.

Additionally, when the universal force Fᴜₙᵢᵥ increases, the effective acceleration aᵉᶠᶠᴜₙᵢᵥ also increases. Initially, the effective mass Mᵉᶠᶠᴜₙᵢᵥ is equivalent to the matter mass Mᴍᴜₙᵢᵥ. However, as force or acceleration continues to increase, the effective mass can exceed the matter mass, thereby potentially dominating the gravitating mass Mɢᴜₙᵢᵥ. This implies that the effective mass plays a crucial role in determining the overall gravitational behaviour, supporting the idea of "negative effective mass" in scenarios where dark energy exerts a repulsive force.

By incorporating the concept of "negative effective mass" into the extended framework of classical mechanics, we develop a more comprehensive understanding of the gravitational dynamics, allowing us to account for the repulsive effects of dark energy on the universe's expansion. This refined interpretation bridges the abstract notion of dynamic mass variations with observable cosmological phenomena, providing insight into the complex interplay between mass, force, and acceleration in the universe.

Dark energy's influence on the universe's expansion can be understood in terms of the effective mass (Mᵉᶠᶠᴜₙᵢᵥ) exhibiting properties that suggest a negative effective density. When the effective mass exceeds the matter mass (Mᴍᴜₙᵢᵥ), it contributes to gravitational dynamics that may resemble those associated with a negative gravitating mass (Mɢᴜₙᵢᵥ), leading to the repulsive effects observed in the universe.

The mathematical framework establishes a relationship between potential energy, effective mass, and universal force, providing insight into the universe's expansion and the concept of "negative effective mass." The potential energy of the universe (PEᴛₒₜᴜₙᵢᵥ) is directly proportional to the effective mass (Mᵉᶠᶠᴜₙᵢᵥ), indicating that the effective mass plays a crucial role in defining the universe's dynamics.

The equation Fᴜₙᵢᵥ = Mᵉᶠᶠᴜₙᵢᵥ · aᵉᶠᶠᴜₙᵢᵥ describes the universal force as directly proportional to effective acceleration (aᵉᶠᶠᴜₙᵢᵥ) and inversely proportional to effective mass (Mᵉᶠᶠᴜₙᵢᵥ). An increase in acceleration leads to an increase in the universal force and a corresponding decrease in effective mass, which can lead to the formation of matter. Over time, potential energy becomes dependent on both the matter mass (Mᴍᴜₙᵢᵥ) and the present effective mass, shaping the gravitational dynamics.

By linking these parameters, this framework explains how variations in effective mass, particularly when perceived as negative, contribute to the repulsive effects associated with dark energy, providing a comprehensive view of the complex interplay between mass, force, and acceleration in the universe.

This expression, establishes a direct relationship between the universe's potential energy and its effective mass. In the early universe, effective mass played a critical role in determining the potential energy. The universal force was necessary to convert this potential energy into kinetic energy, facilitating the rapid expansion of the universe. As the effective mass decreased, acceleration increased, reflecting the dynamics of this early rapid expansion.

The equation Fᴜₙᵢᵥ = Mᵉᶠᶠᴜₙᵢᵥ · aᵉᶠᶠᴜₙᵢᵥ

describes that the universal force is directly proportional to effective acceleration, and effective acceleration is inversely proportional to effective mass. This relationship suggests that in the early universe, the universal force was the product of the effective mass and the effective acceleration.

Since acceleration is inversely proportional to mass, an increase in effective acceleration leads to a corresponding increase in the universal force, which, in turn, causes a decrease in the effective mass as the acceleration increases, and so corresponding increase in matter mass through formation. As acceleration increase, the effective mass decrease, forming matter mass.

Later, the potential energy became dependent on both the matter mass (Mᴍᴜₙᵢᵥ) and the present effective mass.

The force is influenced by the interaction between the matter mass and the effective mass, where the effective acceleration (aᵉᶠᶠᴜₙᵢᵥ) is inversely related to the total mass, comprising both matter and effective mass, represented by the equation:

As the effective acceleration increases, the apparent matter mass decreases, corresponding increase in present effective mass, which is negative, within this combined mass. Thus, the emergence of dark energy from negative effective mass and its dominant role in gravitational dynamics can be explained by the relationship between effective mass and gravitational effects. As acceleration increased, the apparent matter mass decreased, generating effective mass.

Dark energy's influence on the universe's expansion can be understood in terms of the effective mass (Mᵉᶠᶠᴜₙᵢᵥ) exhibiting properties that suggest a negative effective density. When the effective mass exceeds the matter mass (Mᴍᴜₙᵢᵥ), it contributes to gravitational dynamics that may resemble those associated with a negative gravitating mass (Mɢᴜₙᵢᵥ), leading to the repulsive effects observed in the universe. As provided under, "Negative Effective Mass: Insights from Universal Force and Acceleration Dynamics.

I am interested in talking with engineers, specifically Systems Engineers, who work in astrophysics and cosmology. I am looking for some potential overlap between the two other than the development of instrumentation.

Distance is a scalar representing the length of a traveled path. Displacement is the length of the straight line (a vector) connecting start and end points.

In a Euclidean plane, they appear to be described by the same number of units.

Light travels in a straight line, analogous to the straight line in a plane.

Is displacement measured using luminosity equal to the corresponding cosmological distance?

Are there experiments? Are there theoretical proofs? Are there articles about this? What are the cites?

Gravitational waves are ripples of spacetime propagating at the speed of light [1]. A gravitational wave can be described as a small perturbation h_μν on a flat spacetime metric η_μν [2]:

g_μν = η_μν + h_μν ....... (Eq.1)

1) Cosmological observations prove that the speed of gravitational waves and the speed of light are identical [3]. In the absence of any third party or any law constraints, if the speeds of gravitational waves and light are exactly the same, they cannot be independently unrelated to each other, so what should be the relationship between them?

2) "The energy associated with gravitational waves is a second-order effect, and so its justification goes beyond the linearised approximation considered so far. ...... Aside from energy, GWs may also carry angular momentum and linear momentum" [1]. Gravitational waves undoubtedly contain energy, and when it travels at the speed of light, it means that the energy spreads at the speed of light and that there is momentum, not that there may be momentum. It does not make sense that energy travelling at the speed of light is not light and is not directly related to light. Light itself contains defined energy and momentum, why wouldn't a gravitational wave contain both defined energy and momentum? How is it best defined if its energy and momentum are defined with only the spacetime parameter?

3) We usually interpret gravity as a geometrical effect of spacetime, and also as an exchange of "gravitons", what is the relationship between these two interpretations, and are gravitons embodied by spacetime parameters? Is there local gravity inside a gravitational wave? What is its relation to the "graviton"?

4) One can think of hμν as the coefficients of the spacetime metrics <Δt, Δx, Δy, Δz>, which, if combined, can express this ripple wave packet in terms of the variable metrics <Δt', Δx', Δy', Δz'> (there is a Locked Relationship between the space and time metrics). Then, in such a spacetime, let us assume that there is a light that is fully accompanied by gravitational wave propagation, i.e. they have a common source:

4.1) How do we define the speed of propagation of light when light itself is in <Δt', Δx', Δy', Δz'>? Defined as c=Δs' /Δt', Δs' = √(Δx'² + Δy'² + Δz'²), it means that light is a synchronised ripple like gravitational waves.

4.2) How do we define the speed of gravitational waves themselves? Gravitational waves are the propagation speed of their own spacetime fluctuations <Δt', Δx', Δy', Δz'>. That is, how do we define the speed of propagation of this <Δt', Δx', Δy', Δz'>? How much distance Δs it travelled in what time Δt?

4.3) LIGO directly measures the length contraction of space, not "bending". "Gravitational waves change the metric describing the spacetime between two freely falling test masses" [1]. "strain-to-length relation used in GW detection based on Michelson interferometers is h+=ΔL/L" [2]; if we consider the geometrical nature of Space-Time Curvature. Can we design a direct measurement of Space-Time Curvature?

4.4）“If light waves are stretched by gravitational waves, how can we use light as a ruler to detect gravitational waves?” This is explained in the literature [4]; is it sufficiently rational?

-----------------------------

[1] Bambi, C., Katsanevas, S., & Kokkotas, K. D. (2022). Handbook of Gravitational Wave Astronomy. Springer Nature.

[2] Cahillane, C., & Mansell, G. (2022). Review of the Advanced LIGO gravitational wave observatories leading to observing run four. Galaxies, 10(1), 36.

[3] Abbott, B. P., Abbott, R., Abbott, T., Acernese, F., & etal. (2017). Gravitational waves and gamma-rays from a binary neutron star merger: GW170817 and GRB 170817A. The Astrophysical Journal Letters, 848(2), L13.

[4] Saulson, P. R. (1997). If light waves are stretched by gravitational waves, how can we use light as a ruler to detect gravitational waves? American Journal of Physics, 65(6), 501-505.

What is inside an outer space black hole?

Either history does NOT EXACTLY repeat or the future is too unpredictable to risk such rationalism. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377663987_Respectfully_and_Unfortunately_The_Improbability_of_and_Danger_in_Believing_in_Reincarnation

I need some one to help in modelling an astrophysics hypothesis.

Call WahtsApp 00962777526193

email: aimanr@yahoo.com

1)Maybe I'm slightly less intuitive. I

consider myself kind of a skeptical empiricist/critical rationalist.

2)I don't believe concepts are eternal because they need to be adjusted to avoid contradictions.

3)Without some transcendence beyond materialism, we would NOT be able to reason.

4)Maybe reason is the ONLY absolute CONCEPT. And reason derives from God.

5)Concepts also aid execution thus, maybe I'm a more skeptical Aristotelian.

Sources:

1)

2)

In relativity (GTR, STR) we hear of masslessness. What is the meaning of it with respect to really (not merely measurementally) existent particles / waves?

I am of the opinion that, while propagating, naturally, wavicles have mass, and there is no situation where they are absolutely at rest or at rest mass. But we know that there are zero rest masses in physics. These are in my opinion masses obtained when the moving wavicle is relatively at rest. Thus, the energy here is supposed to be at a relative zero.

But such a relative rest is obtainable only with respect to a few movements (under consideration at a given relativistic situation); and always there will be some other physical processes around and within, with respect to which the zero rest mass wavicle already contextually taken as in zero rest mass is not at zero rest mass and zero energy.

If the relatively achieved zero rest mass and/or non-zero mass may always be conceived as the real mass, then nothing has a constant and permanent "own mass". In that case, any specific contextual mass must be fixed for contexts only, and the only thing that may be spoken of its mass is "finite", "non-zero and non-infinite".

This is a thing I have been thinking of giving as a realistic example for a method that I had developed in my 2018 book, in order to characterize the various, most general, accessible values attributable to processes. This is what I have called the maximal-medial-minimal (MMM) method of determining cosmological, physical, and other forms of access values of existent processes.

But I forgot to write down the said example. Recently I wrote it down as an example for discussing it in another book. But I realize that I can write a detailed section of a chapter about it.

The MMM method is based on determining the space, time, matter-energy content, etc. of anything, including the whole cosmos, as being of infinite or finite or zero value of any quantity. I have shown in the said book that this can be developed not only into a method in the philosophy of physics but also in the most general foundational notions and principles of all sciences.

GRAVITATIONAL COALESCENCE PARADOX (GCP):

INTRODUCTION TO GRAVITATIONAL COALESCENCE COSMOLOGY (GCC)

Anything can exist only non-vacuously and absolutely in Extension (having parts) and simultaneously and inseparably also in Change (existents and their parts impacting some other extended existents). Anything without these two mutually integral characteristics cannot exist. Physical entities are in finite change in themselves and in every part. In that state of finite change, they are also finitely stable in themselves. This alone is their identity as Extension-Change-wise processes. The entities within cosmos are such.

Hence, back to the cosmos. Even the allegedly “non-causal” quantum-mechanical constituent processes are mathematically and statistically circumscribed measuremental concepts from the results of empirical activity of experiments and thought on Extended-Changing existents and ipso facto the realities behind these statistical measurements are in Extension-Change if these processes are physically existent. Without such existence, statistics has no foundation at all.

If not in Change, how can something physical exist in Extension alone? And if not in Extension, how can something exist in Change alone? Hence, Extension-Change are the two fundamental and exhaustively complete implications of To Be, and hence may be termed the ontological Categories of all existence.

Finally, Extension-Change-wise existence is what we understand as Causality. That is, if anything exists, it is in Causation. This is the principle of Universal Causality...!

Space is the measured shape of Extension; time is that of Change. Therefore, space and time are epistemic categories. How then can statistical causality be causality at all?

In short, everything existent is causal: hence Universal Causality as the highest pre-scientific Law, second only to Existence / To Be.

Absolute vacuum is not an existent. The 3500+ years old gods are either vacua, or parts of this cosmos. And if the Absolute Divine should exist, the only remaining rational possibility is that it must have ubiquitously infinite Extension and infinite Change. Infinite Extension is not stability without Change. Infinite Extension must be just the infinitely intense state of affairs – infinite activity and the infinite stability proper to infinite activity.

If the Divine exists, it must be in infinite stability in its state of infinite Change. But is it possible to have rational arguments in favour of its existence? The whole history of humanity has not yet produced one with enough truth probability. Can cosmology now accomplish this task? We do not yet know.

Even if there is no common big bang within a fully finite-content universe, there will be expansions and contractions locally. Moreover, the universe will have outer limits. At the outer limits some gravitational and non-gravitational energies must be lost, because there is no force at the outskirts to block these from escaping. Additionally, if the universe has a finite but fixed speed limit of energy propagation, then what is lost at the outskirts can never be brought back by propagations that issue later. If there is a general expansion, then there will be contraction too. Naturally, there are consecutive expansions and contractions, however limited they are. These cannot go on infinitely, since the finite-content universe loses energy (convertible in terms of mass) at the outskirts.

A fully cyclic and geometrically fully spherical oscillating universe existing as the sole finite universe can never be defended. Within a finite (of course, very long) time, it will exteriorize its matter-energy and be entirely rarefied over a finite number of oscillations. This raises the question of the causal horizon of the first big bang of a finitely cyclic universe and/or the very beginning of this universe. If other such separate universes exist, the final residues of the first will form part of one or many of them, because the distance between them is always finite, and all of them have some gravitation.

Now there are the following two possible lines of solution for the first big bang of a finite-content universe: (1) the matter of our universe has come from other universes or (2) it was created in some way from a Source that is not a form of matter-energy with finite activity and finite stability (which finite activity and stability is the case only of the cosmos).

If the matter-energy of a finite oscillating universe is from other universes, there remains only the case of existence of an infinite number of them. All of them eventually will exteriorize their matter-energy into becoming parts of other universes in finite durations. Such universes exist at finite distances. Gravitation from one such universe will affect similar neighbour universes in finite time. So, they should coalesce gravitationally with each other and with others over the course of time. Gravitation has a finite propagation velocity, not infinite. If gravitation can vary in velocity, each such local gravitational coalescence will have a highest limit, whatever, of gravitational velocity at each phase of expansion from a common central black hole.

Moreover, at any time with respect to one finite-content universe, there are only a finite number of universes in mutual gravitational attraction, since an infinitely spatiotemporal universe can never form a fully gravitationally related infinite-content conglomeration. If it could, there would again appear the contradiction of infinite mass, density etc. and infinite velocity, which is the same as the absolutely miraculous action-at-an-infinite-distance. We do not need it.

The mass-and-volume differences among coalescences do not matter. Due to the tendency of matter as groups of island universes to form ever wider gravitational conglomerations or coalescences, the formation of an eventual common center for each such wider coalescence is a must. There is no time when a coalescence of such universes existed or exists without gradually forming a common gravitational center. This conclusion is absolutely inevitable if all existing universes and parts thereof are gravitational.

No such coalescence, however wide, can bring back the gravitons it has radiated to the peripheries from the common gravitational center at a time before or during or after its big bang or big crunch – and even if there is no big bang and big crunch. This process can only continue forwards forming ever wider coalescences; and never backwards in a de-coalescence or de-coherence of gravitational coalescences, because gravitational propagation is an outward, not inward, process of some sort of energy propagations.

If the cosmological scalar Λ-addition is a dark energy qualified solely by its alleged ability to repel, no amount of dark energy should possess the capacity to attach itself to any other dark energy quantum. Ipso facto, it never exists in any real universe. If it includes also gravitational radiation, it is impossible to understand why there should be these ad hoc quanta of repulsion if, naturally, the limits of density that each conglomeration of matter-energy possesses by reason of its mass, volume etc. can produce repulsion between parts of the conglomeration after the conglomeration has attained critical density.

As is evident, it is irrational to posit the existence of repulsons – as quanta / wavicles of repulsion to keep dark energy on par with gravitation. Hence, I discuss gravitational coalescences to theoretically circumvent any irresolvable problem that the concept of dark energy can offer.

It is common knowledge that gravitational propagation is an outward, not inward, process of energy propagation from any gravitating material body. This should take place also from within a universe to other universes. Hence, there should be coalescences of universes at some time or other due to gravitational attraction.

At no time relative to the coalescing universes of universes can an infinite coalescence be actualized via gravitational influence from a central black hole common to all the infinite number of universes, although infinite such gravitationally coalesced universes, groups of universes, etc. exist in an infinite-content multiverse.

Hence, no gravitational coalescence, however big, is a gravitational member of an infinite number of gravitational coalescences. This fact and the fact of loss of energy at the fringes of universes flow logically from the foregoing discussions. I shall now define in the following paragraph the paradox of matter-energy creation implied above.

The Gravitational Coalescence Paradox (GCP): At any time in an infinite multiverse, there will be an infinite number of gravitationally ever broadening coalescences, none of which can be traced back to other such coalescences for their origin. Each maximal gravitational coalescence at any timerelative to the local set of coalescences is irreducibly finite and hence has a finite past in the absence of any past contact with any other outer universes.

Each of the infinite number of coalescences is thus cosmogenetically isolated from other such coalescences, because, at any time, there exist an infinite number of coalescences which are cosmogenetically isolated and cannot be traced for any causal inheritance from an infinite number of them. All the universes from which a certain universe has had causal inheritance is already included within its broadest possible gravitational coalescence.

The above Paradox facilitates the question to be posed of the origin of each such gravitational coalescence in the finite past of each such, since at any given time none of the designated infinite coalescences has had past gravitational or any other causal contacts with any other cosmic entity. I term the foregoing discussion the backbone of Gravitational Coalescence Cosmology (GCC).

Bibliography

(1) Gravitational Coalescence Paradox and Cosmogenetic Causality in Quantum Astrophysical Cosmology, 647 pp., Berlin, 2018.

(2) Physics without Metaphysics? Categories of Second Generation Scientific Ontology, 386 pp., Frankfurt, 2015.

(3) Causal Ubiquity in Quantum Physics: A Superluminal and Local-Causal Physical Ontology, 361 pp., Frankfurt, 2014.

(4) Essential Cosmology and Philosophy for All: Gravitational Coalescence Cosmology, 92 pp., KDP Amazon, 2022, 2nd Edition.

(5) Essenzielle Kosmologie und Philosophie für alle: Gravitational-Koaleszenz-Kosmologie, 104 pp., KDP Amazon, 2022, 1st Edition.

Hello Cosmologists and Astrophysicists! Is the Stuff of Cosmic Vacuum nothing but Absolute Nothing (= Zero) or Some Quanta of Energy (= Zero Plus)? Finite Energy Creates Infinite Worlds?

I would want to know from you all, whether an infinite number of finite worlds will be created afresh from these cosmic vacua. Or, can they only be agents of re-cycling existing matter-energy from the various worlds?

Raphael Neelamkavil

the nature of time

The local gravitational potential Φ_u = c² = 2GM_u/R_u mainly originates from distant masses M_u of the unverse, and it immediately follows the mass-energy equivalence E_m = m*Φ_u = mc² as well as Φ_u = 1/(ε₀μ₀) for the electromagnetic properties of vacuum space.

Are current scientific views propped up by censorship of competing ideas and mutual complacency?

I am asking this controversial question because I cannot get a single astronomer, physicist, cosmologist, or astrophysicist to take the other side of my arguments.

I hope some of the outstanding scientists here will accept to talk shop.

I made a special request to Dr. Brian Keating.

Gavitational potential originating from distant masses of the universe is about 10⁸ times larger than the Sun's gravitational potential at the Earth's distance, and yet the latter can keep the Earth in its orbit.

It cannot be excludd that luminal speed according to c² = 2GM_u/R_u is essentially determined and limited by the gravitational potential of distant masses (subscript u). Notably, Einstein 1911 found light deflection close to the Sun to result from locally enhanced gravitational potential.

So it also cannot be excluded that electromagnetic properties of vacuum space according to 1/(ε₀µ₀) = 2GM_u/R_u are essentially determined by the gravitational potential from distant masses.

Accidentally or not, it appears noticeable that the potential energy of a mass m at the gravitational potential of the universal masses approximately corresponds to the relativistic energy equivalent E = mc².

Finally, a characteristic deceleration observed on rapidly spinning rotors also indicates a possible interaction with distant masses.

We resolve problem of cosmological constant discrepancy.

In order to do this we assume Single Uncertainty Sphere, meaning that only one exists on whole Universe and in that way the energy density just reduced by 122 orders of magnitude and make theoretical values of cosmological constant coherent with observations.

This hypothesis gives much larger impact not only on astrophysics, but also how we should perceive structure how space is constructed.

Feel free to comment and encourage for discussion about this assumption.

Do you think it is too abstract and crazy?

Please refer to this preprint to see more details:

Who agrees heaven may be more interesting than hell because individuality possibly is kept in salvation more so than in damnation? How? Why? Stimuli:

December 2023 Sci Am has an article at page 62 by science writer Richard Panet, The Cosmic Surprise. Scientists discovered dark energy 25 years ago. They’re still trying to figure out what it is

The same article appears in Sci Am’s Space and Physics November 16, 2023: The Most Shocking Discovery in Astrophysics Is 25 Years Old A quarter of a century after detecting dark energy, scientists are still trying to figure out what it is.

Suppose instead, that dimensional capacity, a simple principle embedded but unnoticed in Galileo’s 1638 strength of materials scaling explains dark energy. The scaling principle is that scaling weight by exponent 3 requires the cross-sectional area of weight-bearing bone to get fatter by scaling by 3/2 relative to scaling of weight. Weight has 3/2 the dimension of area, area gets bigger by 3/2 disproportionately, so there is enough bone mass to support increased weight.

For dark energy, suppose the 4 dimensions of space + light motion results in 3D space getting fatter, so 3D radial distances are 4/3 of 4D distances.

As in :

If after 25 years, physics with all its modern mathematics, theories and technology has not figured out DE, maybe it's because physics cannot without a simple concept not yet part of conventional physics.

I suspect future generations will be mystified why this generation thought dark energy was shocking.

How can the service be improved?

Survey: https://forms.gle/f3cpiBV1k2ePaK2d9

“The Essence of ‘E’: Unveiling the Infinitely Infinite” for your consideration. Enclosed, you will find a comprehensive exploration into the enigmatic concept of “E,” a cosmic force that transcends the boundaries of finite and infinite existence.

This manuscript represents a labor of passion and dedication, offering a unique perspective on the role of “E” in the universe. From its profound cosmic order to its paradoxical nature of being both infinitesimal and infinitely powerful, this work delves deep into the heart of a concept that defies human comprehension.

The content is structured meticulously, with an abstract that provides a concise overview of the manuscript’s scope, an engaging introduction that draws the reader into the subject matter, and detailed sections that explore the mass of “E” and the cataclysmic events it undergoes. The manuscript concludes with a thought-provoking summary of our journey into the infinitely infinite.

I believe this manuscript would make a valuable addition to [Company/Organization Name]’s collection of publications, given its unique perspective and the depth of research invested in it. It has the potential to appeal to a wide audience interested in cosmology, astrophysics, and the mysteries of the universe.

I would be delighted to discuss any further steps or provide additional information as needed. I eagerly await your response

If it is true that space-time is expanding, how does the measure of space-time change?

The shape of space-time is the shape of the universe; how can expansion without a boundary be called expansion? If the boundary of spacetime is the boundary of the universe, can spacetime expansion with a boundary have no background? How is the boundary maintained? If the boundary of spacetime is infinite, how does it expand?

We will use these paired terms to describe spacetime: infinite/finite, absolute/relative*, flat/curved, continuous/discrete, four-dimensional†/higher-dimensional, and so on. Normally we think of these properties as opposites ‡ and only one or the other can be chosen. But the full range of properties of spacetime will be combinations between these different properties. For example, spacetime has infinite, absolute, continuous, flat, four-dimensional properties, or spacetime has finite, discrete properties, etc. In any case, none of us thinks that there is a concept of "multiple spacetimes", or that spacetime should have its own background, or that spacetime can overlap, although physics suggests that there may be local "warps" in spacetime.

Astronomical observations show that the universe is in a process of accelerated expansion [1][2][3], with all stars moving away at an accelerated rate and possibly never returning. Physics attributes the expansion of space-time to the presence of dark energy with negative pressure [4]. Dark energy has been hypothesized in various ways (including non-existence), one of which is the cosmological constant Λ in Einstein's field equations (the zero-point radiation of space [5], the energy of the vacuum, the zero-point energy [6]).

Physics has not exactly explained the exact relationship between spacetime and the various fields assumed by the Standard Model [7], but only assumes the existence of vacuum energy [8][6], and is not sure which field's vacuum energy it is, whether it is the electromagnetic field, the electron field, the muon field, or the up-quark field, the charm-quark field, the Higgs field [9], or just the sum of their respective vacuum energies. So when it is assumed that space-time is expanding, and vacuum energy is expanding, are they created in it, or are they diffused across the boundary? Are they the driving force or the result? How do they manifest within microscopic particles when expanding at high speeds on the macroscopic scale?

Physics does not explain the origin of the dynamics of the Big Bang, nor does it explain when and how all the various fields in the Standard Model were formed, how they were formed, how they were maintained in existence, and how they evolved along with, or determined, the evolution of the Universe throughout the entire evolution of the Universe from the Big Bang onward. It is not clear how the various particles were excited initially from their own fields, but the explanation of nucleosynthesis [10] to the current period is relatively clear.

Usually we think of the universe as a set of space-time and matter-energy. There are many different models of the universe, and in addition to the Standard Model, there are many cyclic universes and multiverse views [11][15]. Then, when we haven't confirmed the model of the universe, there is no confirmed goal of the evolution of the universe, and there is no confirmed shape and boundary of the universe.

Both Einstein and Hawking say that the universe is "finite and unbounded" [12]. They believe that the universe is a finite three-dimensional sphere with a finite volume but no boundary. Topological theory says, "The boundary of a region has no boundary itself. "** [13]. Wheeler's statement is, "The boundary of a boundary is zero" [14]. What is the result of the infinite extension of the three orthogonal coordinate axes for a finite three-dimensional spherical universe?

Mathematically, there are four combinations between measures and boundaries: finite bounded, infinite unbounded, finite unbounded, and infinite bounded. The first two concepts are clear, but the latter two need to be recognized carefully when translated to physics. The "singularity" is a typical example of an "infinite bounded". Usually in physics, when time or space shrinks to zero, the corresponding physical quantity tends to infinity. For example, E=hν, when ν→0; F=q1*q2/r^2, when r→0. However, we believe that this is only a trend and that there can be no state that reaches a singularity. Therefore, "infinitely bounded" is not real. The Koch Curve, often thought of as a fractal geometry expressing "finite unbounded", is one of the nth iterations of the Koch snowflake that can be implemented in the Wolfram Language as KochCurve[n]¶. The difference between physical reality and mathematics can be shown here, as n cannot be chosen to be infinite, so the Koch Curve will always be in a definite state in reality, and although it can evolve, "finite and unbounded" is a tendency, not a state. The formulation of the Mobius strip††, the irrational numbers, is another way of saying "finite unbounded". In physics, a typical example of "finite unbounded" is the electron. The electron has a fixed charge e, but the boundary of the electric field E of the charge extends infinitely (the field strength is convergent). Of course, the concept of zero-dimensional "point particles" is also a kind of abstract "finite unbounded". In short, in physical terms, finite must have boundaries.

General relativity is the basis for modeling the universe, but is there any good reason why we should be able to determine the evolutionary goals of the universe, its shape, and its boundaries through general relativity alone? Shouldn't such boundaries be "boundary conditions" of GR?

There should not be any boundary conditions, which are the conditions necessary for the model of the universe to hold correctly.

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Notes

* cf, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/373877548_Convergent_and_Disperse_Cyclic_Multiverse_Model_CDCMM.

† cf, https://www.researchgate.net/post/NO1_Can_This_Be_an_Argument_for_3-D_Space;

‡ As long as we do not have a precise definition of spacetime, viewing these properties as opposites can only be taken for granted. As with the wave-particle duality of particles, which property is presented depends on the observer's perspective; the structure of the particle itself does not change. Further characterizations of spacetime include whether it is inherently existent or generative, whether the vacuum contains energy, and so on.

¶ https:// mathworld.wolfram.com/KochSnowflake.html; Stephen Wolfram, Founder of Wolfram Language, is very interested in the question of the evolution of the universe, and is the author of the book "a new kind of science", which has been trying to find out how the universe evolves using metacellular automata.

** e.g. the two-dimensional region has as its boundary a one-dimensional loop; the loop has no end, that is, it has no boundary itself.

†† The Möbius strip is bounded as long as one does not confuse metrics with boundaries.

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References

[1] Linder, E.V., Exploring the expansion history of the universe. Physical Review Letters, 2003. 90(9): p. 091301.

[2] Riess, A.G., The expansion of the Universe is faster than expected. Nature Reviews Physics, 2020. 2(1): p. 10-12.

[3] Freedman, W.L., The Hubble constant and the expansion age of the Universe. Physics Reports, 2000. 333: p. 13-31.

[4] "Dark Energy Survey, Collaboration." from https://www.darkenergysurvey.org/the-des-project/overview/.

[5] Oks, E. (2021). "Brief review of recent advances in understanding dark matter and dark energy." New Astronomy Reviews 93: 101632.

[6] Carroll, S. M., W. H. Press and E. L. Turner (1992). "The cosmological constant." Annual review of astronomy and astrophysics 30: 499-542.

[7] Group, P. D., P. Zyla, R. Barnett, J. Beringer, O. Dahl, D. Dwyer, D. Groom, C.-J. Lin, K. Lugovsky and E. Pianori (2020). "Review of particle physics." Progress of Theoretical and Experimental Physics 2020(8): 083C001.

[8] Jaffe, R. L. (2005). "Casimir effect and the quantum vacuum." Physical Review D 72(2): 021301.

[9] Springer (2020). 100 Years of Fundamental Theoretical Physics in the Palm of Your Hand: Integrated Technical Treatment.

[10] Cyburt, R. H., B. D. Fields, K. A. Olive and T.-H. Yeh (2016). "Big bang nucleosynthesis: Present status." Reviews of Modern Physics 88(1): 015004.

[11] Carr, B. and G. Ellis (2008). "Universe or multiverse?" Astronomy & Geophysics 49(2): 2.29-22.33.

[12] Hawking, S. W. and M. Jackson (2001). A brief history of time, Bantam Books New York.

[13] Yang, C. N. (1980). "Einstein's impact on theoretical physics." Physics Today 33(6): 42-49.

[14] Misner, C. W., K. S. Thorne and J. A. Wheeler (2017). GRAVITATION, Princoten University Press.

[15] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/373877548_Convergent_and_Disperse_Cyclic_Multiverse_Model_CDCMM.

In the definition of the ontology of physics (generally as the study of the cosmos), I shall posit the necessity of the highest possible grounds that I find as fundamental for physics and philosophy alike. The reason for these Categories’ (a few universals that apply to all existents, and not merely to all discourses) being meant also for philosophy (especially for the philosophy of science) is that both philosophy and physics have physical existents in common as their object range.

Philosophy additionally has the pure universals of physics within the ambit of study, and both physics and philosophy have different manners of treating their object range. Hence, well-grounded physical foundations cannot do without the most suitable among these universals as its fundamental Categories, selected from among the universals forming part of the objects of philosophy.

Although many physicists and mathematicians may find the following definition of the ontology behind physics queer due to their pragmatic and near-sighted concept of physics (where physical objects are part of their object range, and not their universals / qualities / forms) in a non-grounded manner, I define here ontology for use in physics with the purpose of later elaboration of the various aspects brought forward in the definition.

The Ontology behind physics is (1) the rationally consequent science of the totality of physical existents, their parts, and their sine qua nons, namely, the pure universals (whereas “properties” are the conglomerations of universal qualities) as pertinents of existents and their parts, (2) prioritized as objects in terms of the To Be (Greek, Einai) of Reality-in-total and only thereafter in terms of the to be (einai) of its parts (reality-in-particular), (3) serving to achieve ever better measuremental approximations of the cosmos and its part-systems (4) in terms of the epistemological ideal of Reality-in-total, namely, the theoretically highest possible notion of Reality-in-general, (5) grounded in the unique and exhaustive implications of To Be, namely, Extension and Change, that are the absolutely necessary touchstones of observables and unobservables which exhaust the object range of physics, (6) in properly physical activities that let Reality and realities be measured in term of measuremental and classificational categories that facilitate both experiments and theories equally well.

I have merely used here the highest Ideals of philosophical and scientific thinking, namely, To Be, Reality-in-total, and Reality-in-general. These are not explained here well enough. I have treated them with detailed justifications in my books: Physics without Metaphysics? Categories of Second Generation Scientific Ontology, Frankfurt, 2015, and Gravitational Coalescence Paradox and Cosmogenetic Causality in Quantum Astrophysical Cosmology, 2018, Berlin.

It is well-known from the literature that there exist diverse acoustic waves in compact astrophysical objects, such as white dwarfs, neutron stars, etc. Can anyone please give us a concise glimpse of the state-of-the-art astronomical observations of such existent acoustic wave spectra?

A research by Prof. Juan De Vicente (CIEMAT, Madrid), author of dozens of publications in the field of astrophysics, was recently published (May 23), which demonstrates, in the opinion of the author, that the universe is not expanding and that the observed cosmological redshift must therefore be attributed to some other physical cause. For example, the decrease in the speed of light over time.

If Prof. De Vicente's research were confirmed, it would put an end to the Big Bang model that the recent observations of the JWST are strongly questioning.

I, not being an expert in astrophysics or statistics, am unable to understand the article in which De Vicente explains the methods and results of his research.

This is the link of the article:

Prof. De Vicente's research is based on the analysis of public data, published on the website:

therefore it is perfectly reproducible.

Is anyone interested in checking De Vicente's research and confirming/denying these results?

It goes without saying that if these data passed the examination of careful criticism they would represent a revolutionary result that would change the history of astronomy forever.

In the event that someone is about to do this check, could he explain exactly the steps taken (possibly limiting to a few dozen galaxies in order to make the method adopted clear) so that this check can also be performed by non-experts?

As far as we are aware, the coulomb proton breakup cross-section is the astrophysically significant reverse process of the proton capture reaction. Therefore, is it feasible to determine the relationship between the astrophysical s-factor and the proton removal cross-section using any method or theoretical framework?

It will be very interesting if there is direct connection between breakup cross-section and s-factor.

As a consequence of a "bad" evaluation last year, when the outcome of the institute was judged between good and excellent, but not outstanding, the Senate of the Leibniz Association recommends that the Federal and State Governments terminate the joint funding of the Leibniz-Institut für Sonnenphysik (KIS, previously known as the Kiepenheuer-Institut für Sonnenphysik) in Freiburg, Germany.

This would be dramatic for the solar physics community in Germany and in Europe, and in the long term for research in astrophysics and beyond. Therefore, the international research community is asked to sign the following petition to support the funding of KIS at an unchanged level:

Raphael Neelamkavil, Ph.D., Dr. phil.

Without the presence of existent gravitational propagation wavicles / particles, nothing physical can hold together. Additionally, there are electro-magnetic and other non-gravitational propagation wavicles / particles. Both are carriers of energy. Thus, there can be two kinds of force-carrier existents (energy wavicles / particles) which are forms of physical matter processes and hence irreducibly are matter:

(1) force-carrier existents that get propagated from existent physical processes and pull other objects a step backwards, thus attracting the object gradually into the graviton-issuing object, and

(2) force-carrier existents that get propagated from existent physical processes, do not pull other objects to the issuing object, and thus give a portion of themselves off to other objects.

Do these gravitational and non-gravitational (electromagnetic and other) wavicles exist? Before using them in physics, it must be determined whether they exist and how they may exist, for them to exert causally real physical effects. Existents cannot be vacua, and hence, they must exist, and hence they are:

(1) in Extension (each having a finite number of finite-content parts), because if not extended, EM quanta would be non-existent, and

(2) in Change (existents, which are always with parts, possessing parts which always exert finite impacts on a finite number of others, inclusive of exertion of finite impacts on some parts within), because anything that has no change is not in existence.

In short, any matter particle and any force-carrier wavicle can exist only Extension-Change-wise. Whether they really exist is clear enough: if they do not exist, then the matter particles that issue force-carrier existents (wavicles) too need not exist, since force-carrier wavicles are just another (relativistically, and not absolutistically, source-independent) form of existence of mater particles.

An existent without own parts and own exertion of impacts will be imaginable as existent. Anything that is not in Extension-Change is non-existent – a physical-ontological fact at the foundations of physics, which most physicists (and other scientists) forget while performing their statistical and other related miracles!

This much for an introduction. Now, what are the implications of such existence in the case of EM wavicles and gravitons?

If electromagnetic and gravitational wavicles are EXISTENT, then they possess also EXTENSION and CHANGE. They are not absolutely geometric particles, instead, they are elongated at various dimensions.

Let us assume the following as a general principle in physics: Anything physical issues gravitons, which are the basic attractive forces within physical existents.

If an existent energy wavicle is thus a matter wavicle with extension, it must also issue gravitons! In that case, the only stuff in the cosmos that cannot themselves issue further gravitons from within are gravitons themselves. What can this work to in physics and cosmology? I believe that we need a revolution from this viewpoint. This is a proposal that waits being tested by future physics and astrophysics.

Gravitons too are extended and changing wavicles. But they are themselves the wavicles possessing also their parts that attract each other, and are long-range in nature. If they issue sub-gravitons, they will naturally be kept attracted within the issuing sources, because the parts from which they are supposed to be issued are themselves attractive by nature and other matter and energy particles attract each other basically by means of issuing gravitons.

But naturally, gravitons too must be existent, and hence possess parts. What would be the sort of parts that gravitons can possess? Repulsons or Gravitons? Sub-repulsons or sub-gravitons? I think that they cannot themselves be repulsons and sub-repulsons, because repulsons and sub-repulsons without coherence will not stick together as parts of gravitons. Gravitons cannot issue gravitons themselves, since this is self-creation. But they can possess sub-gravitons as parts, but these need not be of the same power as their totality that each graviton is.

In any case, one thing should be accepted: BOTH ELECTROMAGNETIC AND GRAVITATIONAL QUANTA MUST ISSUE THEIR OWN WAVICLES OF ATTRACTION. IN THE CASE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC QUANTA, THE ISSE IS THAT OF GRAVITONS (and whatever other sub-wavicles that might be there for them to give rise to). IN THE CASE OF GRAVITONS, THE PARTS WILL HAVE TO BE SUB-GRAVITONS (plus whatever other sub-wavicles that might be there for them to give rise to).

The Extension-Change kind of existence is what we call Causation, and therefore, every existent is a causal Process in all parts. This is nothing but the Universal Law of Causality. That is, no more do we need to prove causation scientifically. This Law is a pre-scientific and hence physical-ontological Law, meant also for biological existents.

Hence, no quantum physics, statistical physics, or quantum cosmology can now declare that certain processes in nature are non-causal or acausal, after having admitted that these processes are in existence!

That is, existents at any level of formation are fully physical, possess at least a minimum of causal connection with others in its environment, are not merely virtual (nor fully modular / non-local / non-emergent / self-emergent / sui generis in a totally isolated manner). Therefore, any existent must have causal connections with its finitely reachable environment and within its inner parts.

Physical-ontologically real generalities must be about, or pertinent to, existents in groups, i.e., as parts of a type / natural kind. These generalities are not existents, but pure ontological universals in natural kinds. Extension and Change are purely ontological and absolutely basic characteristics of all existents. Hence, I have termed them Categories.

Space and time are just the measurement-based epistemic notions or versions of the more generally physical-ontological Extension and Change respectively. The latter two are ontological generalities of all existent processes, because nothing can exist without these two Categories.

Hence, space and time are not physical-ontological, not real about, not pertinent to, existents. In short, physical science working only on measuremental space-time cannot verify newly discovered energy wavicles and matter particles by use of the physical “properties” they are ascribed to.

The test criteria for the existence of any existent particles will be Extension (each having a finite number of finite-content parts) and Change (existents, which are always with parts, possessing parts which always exert finite impacts on others, inclusive of exertion of finite impacts on some parts within).

Bibliography

(1) Gravitational Coalescence Paradox and Cosmogenetic Causality in Quantum Astrophysical Cosmology, 647 pp., Berlin, 2018.

(2) Physics without Metaphysics? Categories of Second Generation Scientific Ontology, 386 pp., Frankfurt, 2015.

(3) Causal Ubiquity in Quantum Physics: A Superluminal and Local-Causal Physical Ontology, 361 pp., Frankfurt, 2014.

(4) Essential Cosmology and Philosophy for All: Gravitational Coalescence Cosmology, 92 pp., KDP Amazon, 2022, 2nd Edition.

(5) Essenzielle Kosmologie und Philosophie für alle: Gravitational-Koaleszenz-Kosmologie, 104 pp., KDP Amazon, 2022, 1st Edition.

According to James C. Keith, see appended PDF files, two components of gravitational drag are to be expected on rotating systems, a 1/c⁵ order drag to be observed preferably on systems of astronomical size, and a 1/c³ order drag preferably observable on millimeter size systems. Observation is limited in either case by experimental resolution of rotational frequency shift. In the early 1970s, Hulse and Taylor [1] determined relative deceleration of a binary neutron star system at 1.5 x 10^-12 per second in agreement with theoretically accepted gravitational quadrupole radiation. A relative deceleration of about 2 x 10^-11 per second was observed around the same time [2] on a 2.5 mm diameter steel ball at 75 kHz rotational speed. This observation has not yet been accepted by established theoretical science as due to gravitational interaction. The access of experimental results to serious analysis seems to be largely a matter of decision by representatives of theoretical rather than engineeering science.

[1] Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 195, p. L51-L53 (1975)

[2] Physical Review Letters, Vol. 30 (16), p. 753-757 (1973)

How these two magnets are spatially related to?

(see illustration)

And in case there is no any special preferred particular orientation, what is anyway their spatial orientation relation (relative angles)? Possible varying with seasons or year cycles. There must be a record of these measurements? I cannot find anything about this on the internet?

Of course in the picture, cases a&b, there could be additional combinations like NS-SN instead of NS-NS in case (a) or NS-NS instead NS-SN in case (b). This is because at that macroscopic scale, gravitational forces prevail over the much weaker magnetic forces.

How would we go about specifying the position of our solar system in the universe, let us say

to an intelligence residing in an unknown part of the universe (assuming for simplicity that we can neglect the sun's motion in our galaxy).

Are there any objects or "landmarks" in the universe that could be used as known points of reference that could be used to specify our location to other intelligent beings residing in a distant part of the universe ? I am thinking of an exact analogue of longitude and latitude for the earth's surface.

An obvious answer would be simply to specify the aspect of the sky (and all known data) as seen from earth or the sun. But would this really be helpful, even if this did specify uniquely our position ?

Relativistic considerations further complicate matters.

Dear All;

If we look closely to scientific works, interviews and speeches of Stephen Hawking, we may see many points unacceptable to norms of science. I myself have identified questionable statements by him that may need to be clarified. I share you several examples:

1- As far as I have seen and read his books, I did not find any referencing styles, bibliography...

2- Strange Statements, for example about Black Holes, rejecting other sciences such as Philosophy,

3- Changing his views constantly, with no reference, talking about Big Crunch, then reject it, talking about Big Bang and then reject it.

4- Advertising "The theory of everything" and then giving it up silently...

5- Did not talk about opposite ideas by others, eg, those who don't accept Big Bang...

6- Changing his ideas about our fate constantly, for example saying we have 1000 years time to leave earth, 600 years, 200 years, 100 years...

7- The reasons he talks about for leaving the earth (such as possible nuclear wars, Viruses, climate change, ... ) could be easily challenged, as humans (if ever according to him ) leave the Earth, wont take with themselves their behavior, culture, tools, systems, policies, attitudes, understanding ideology, beliefs, systems, doctrines? just to name a few.

8- Alien invasion

9- other issues... we talk about later

Please share your ideas on points mentioned above, or other points you know

Thank you

In reference to the attached document, it seems that scientist with the helping hand of metaphysics have created several scientific versions of Turtle All the Way Down viewpoint.

The article criticizes two widely accepted models for the genesis of the universe which can be listed under two hypotheses:

Both theories have been discussed in enough detail, but this question/discussion is related to the second theory.

I need some guidance to understand and properly use MESA.

My ultimate goal is to modify it such that I can use a variable G.

I saw a video using it to predict the evolution of a main-sequence star. I don't quite understand how it is used to predict observations (Stellar Population).

I am familiar with the Kennicutt-Schmidt Law, relating the rate of galaxy formation and gas surface density

The Tolman surface brightness test (surface brightness versus z), might be used together with wavelength information to determine star population as a function of z.

Then there is the initial mass function

It is not clear how this initial mass function would be changed in an epoch-dependent G.

IN SUMMARY

This is a very early stage of exploration of the issue of Stellar Population Modeling, Star Evolution under MESA.

Advice and comments are welcomed.

I agree that Astrophysics is a multidisciplinary field and that students of Astrophysics are taught many subjects from diverse fields. For example Astrophysics curriculum covers mathematics, relativity, statistical mechanics, quantum mechanics, fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, radiation, lasers, electronics, optics etc. etc. But I am perplexed to find that neither Astrophysics text books nor the study curriculum of Astrophysicists cover theory of elasticity in general or working out stresses and strains in solid bodies in particular.

An obvious answer of most learned readers may be that Astrophysicists are not required to deal with solid bodies throughout their career and hence are not required to study theory of elasticity or to learn working out stresses and strains in solid bodies.

Actually however, the situation is other way around. Since Astrophysicists do not study theory of elasticity and do not know how to work out stresses and strains in very large spherical solid bodies under self-gravitation, they erroneously make them collapse under self-gravitation into black holes, thereby misleading the whole scientific community.

None of the current models of stellar core collapse make any attempt to compute the magnitude of STRESSES in the SOLID iron cores actually produced in massive stars at the end of their fusion burning stage.

As per current models when a solid iron core becomes degenerate, the degenerate electrons get freed from their parent iron atoms leaving behind 'positive ions' of iron. When the positive ions start falling towards the center of the core under gravity, the high energy degenerate electrons are SUPPOSED to push these ions outwards by their degeneracy pressure to counter the effect of gravity. However, to impart an outward push to the falling ions, the high energy degenerate electrons will have to exchange their momentum with the falling ions through elastic collisions. But the high energy electrons cannot exchange their momentum with positive ions through elastic collisions because of their electrostatic interactions and hence can never provide the so-called electron degeneracy pressure in stellar cores to counter the effect of gravity.

The main reason for ASSUMING the electron degeneracy pressure in solid iron stellar cores is the implied belief that a cooled down stellar core cannot maintain its Hydrostatic equilibrium in the absence of adequate thermal pressure and that nothing else can stop the gravitational collapse of such cores. Therefore, the constituents of a solid stellar core are first ASSUMED to be non-interacting for applying Hydrostatic equilibrium equations and then the electrons and ions are again ASSUMED to be non-interacting for invoking the electron degeneracy pressure to support the pull of gravity.

Hence, it turns out that all stellar cores which are said to be degenerate, where some sort of degeneracy pressure is invoked to prevent their gravitational collapse under Hydrostatic equilibrium conditions, are in fact SOLID stellar cores which acquire their stability through Equilibrium equations of elasticity. In current models, the stresses in a solid iron stellar core are never analyzed as a SOLID body under self-gravitation, by using the Equilibrium equations of elasticity. By taking into account the electromagnetic interactions among electrons, protons and ions we can show that the high density stellar cores transform into gravity induced solid state which can support the gravitational loading through development of radial and hoop stresses.

How we distinguish a gravitational BH from a hypothetical vortex in the fabric of space-time itself? Would both not generate the same exactly effect(s)? Or are the maths different on every case?

Assuming that there is not yet any non-rotational BH discovered so far. The above hypothesis is even more intriguing!

The offended paper is here:

This is a rhetorical question since, in my mind, that is utterly non-acceptable.

I say that while accepting the reality that it takes time to write a few paragraphs in a rejection letter.

That said, it might take years to polish the arguments contained in a paper.

In my case, it took 16 years.

My issue is that, on purpose, I chose to tackle the Big Bang Theory first. It is the weakest model in the whole Physics. There are "Crisis in Cosmology" articles written by everyone and their cats. There is Hubble Tension, S8 tension... Missing Dark Matter, Early Galaxy Formation Conundrum...

Not to mention the lack of any evidence of a False Vacuum, Inflaton Field or Inflaton Particle, etc, etc.

My theory starts with a new model for matter, where matter is made of shapeshifting deformations of the metric (so, it is not Mass Deforms Metric, but modulated metric is mass).

It cannot be simpler. It allows the Universe to have just space, deformed space and time - the simplest possible model.

Occam's Razor will tell you that this model should be part of the conversation.

The Universe starts from a Heisenberg-Dictated Metric Hyperspherical Fluctuation, which after partial recombination is left with an Inner Dilation Layer (IDL) and the Outermost Contraction Layer (OCL).

As one would expect OCL breaks apart when it starts to move, pushed by the IDL. This process has a physical analogy in the Prince Rupert Drop

SO, the model is disappointly simple. No metrics, nothing for you to polish... just a simple model that explains EVERYTHING.

It also debunks General Relativity (Einstein's equations do not describe the Universe expansion). And replicates all Einstein's successes, while providing simpler explanations (instead of time dilation, we have the weakening of forces with absolute velocity).

What about ABSOLUTE VELOCITY? Well, we all know we can define absolute velocity using the CMB. Period. So, absolute velocity (and the breakdown of Relativity) shouldn't be a surprise.

So, my theory also challenges the current Cosmic Distance Ladder and in doing so (using an epoch-dependent law of Gravitation), it parameterless predicts the distances using just the redshifts. The predictions are attached.

So, in doing so, it attacks Dark Matter and Dark Energy and all the sordid interests behind them. I say sordid in the sense that I believe that all these entrenched interests are at play in this summary rejection of my work.

Why would I say that? There is a simple reason. If an editor (and all the other editors) don't bother to justify their actions, one is left with nothing to do other than speculate on the WHY.

Recent numerical simulations show that the inner part of the disk seems to oscillate in presence of a Large scale magnetic field or when the disk is in MAD state. So, can we correlate this sort of behaviour with the variability of the source?

We all know that accretion disks around BHs are presumably be magnetized in nature. If we consider ideal MHD, we know magnetic fields are frozen within the plasmas. Now, magnetic fields are turbulent, so can they help in raising the temperature of the disk? And is it significant?

Do such measurements make sense? Do they exist?

Comparing redshift and luminosity distances, if that is a sensible question, may bear on the 4/3 scaling hypothesis as it relates to dark energy.

I want to create preprint of a research article via arXiv. Do you recommend any specific latex template?

I conducted a experiment whose conclusions were opposite as that of Big Bang. So, based on the conclusions of my experiment I concluded that some points in Big Bang Theory are wrong...

The existence of turbulence in astrophysical fluids has been living as a well-known unsolved problem for a couple of decades. The range transitions among three distinct scales of the micro-fluidic kinetics are still lying obscure. In this context, is there any equation of state to describe turbulent fluid media in the fabric of the modified (by turbulence) macroscopic Navier-Stokes equation?

There are several papers which are using following formula (as shown in the picture) to calculate the dust mass (Md) of the dusty environments such as Nebula, loops etc in the ISM. The expression for dust mass shows that it depends on grain size, grain density and grain emissivity, here, for IRAS Survey, grain size = 0.1 micron, density = 1000 kg/m3 and emissivity = 0.0010 for 100 micron, respectively, are used. Are these constants same for AKARI and WISE survey too? OR, are there any other methods for the dust mass calculation using AKARI and WISE data? I would be very much happy to get your valuable suggestions. Thank you :)

..

Dr. Hans-Otto Carmesin is a prolific theoretician who wrote among other things, these two books:

Modeling SN1a data:

That said, he leads a field where a lot of unsupported claims are tossed around without anything to support it. That is why they are unsupported..:)

As Dr. Carmesin professed, scientists should follow the teachings of Aristotle and always use the simplest possible model that is consistent with Reality.

Dr. Carmesin's model has nonlocality, dimensional transitions, the usual suspects (Dark Matter and Dark Energy), and an epoch-dependent Dark Energy (figure 8.15 on the first book above).

It is a fantastic work and from my point of view, unnecessary and incorrect.

Unnecessary because there is HU which is capable to explain everything Dr. Carmesin explained without the need for a Big Bang, Dark Energy, Dark Matter, epoch-dependent Dark Matter, Polychromatic Vacuum. Because of that, Aristotle and Occam's Razor would support HU and rebut Dr. Carmesin's work.

Attached is my summary of the problems I found on Dr. Carmesin's claims that SN1a distances support his work.

This is an ongoing discussion.

Dr. Carmesin provided a reply to my objections and confirmed that he is not sure if his model can predict the SN1a distances.

In fact, he said: "My theory does not fail to predict these distances. I just did not calculate these distances yet for a good reason: I tested my full theory by calculating the measured Hubble constants of the Hubble tension."

My plot of his model showcases that the model fails to predict the observed distances.

I also drive home the fact that Dr. Carmesin's model modifies the meaning of H0 (the Hubble Constant). Because of that comparison of results are not straightforward and seems to not have been considered before.

The plots also show that HU model predicts the observed distances without any parameters.

This is to understand how the concepts of statistical mechanics is applied in astrophysics.

Dear Researchers in the field :

Does anyone know what the KAGRA Gravitational Waves Observatory it's been up to ?

KAGRA announced at the end of last year (2019) that they were ready for the kick off. And that in February this year (2020) they were turn to the sky for the first (real) observations and be ready to joing the efforts of the LIGO-Virgo collaboration.

But I haven't hear anything about KAGRA since that time.

I'm sure they had to close due to the COVID-19 pandemic, probably since March.

But, now in December, almost the end of the year, I would have expected to hear news about Observatory.

Does anyone know what is it status nowadays ? Maybe the explanation is that the facilities kept shut down almost the whole year since the pandemic.

If someone know fresh news, I'll appreciate the sharing.

Best Regards all ! :)

A Cosmology based on a Chaos-borne Hubble Law

Otto E. Rossler

Division of Theoretical Chemistry, University of Tubingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 8, 72076 Tübingen, F.R.G.

A recent classical-mechanical finding, Fermi deceleration, implies a classical Hubble-like law. While its exact size is still open, it is bound to co-determine empirical reality. Some old and new questions concerning the size and the age of the cosmos arise. The current enigma of early old galaxies supports the prediction of a potentially much larger and older cosmos. So does Riccardo Giacconi's finding of ultra-high-redshift x-ray point sources.

(October 8, 2004)

Recently, a classical-mechanics based Hubble-like law was described [1,2]: Light rays

negotiating galactic clusters that are in random motion with up to 1 percent the speed of light (as is realistic) suffer a distance-proportional redshift through "Fermi deceleration." The latter phenomenon was discovered by Loskutov et al. [3] on a chaotic billiard: A fast-moving, low-mass billiard that is subject to random grazing-type collisions with slowly moving high­mass boundaries suffers a distance-proportional loss of momentum called Fermi deceleration [3]. The repelling grazing-type boundaries of Loskutov et al. can be replaced by attracting high-mass point centers - with the same grazing-type interactional effect. The slow attracting centers may be galaxies or clusters of galaxies and the billiard may be a light ray. The size of the effect depends on the density, mass and speed of the attracting centers.

The size of the effect appears to be neither too large nor too small to accomodate the empirical Hubble law [1]. If this preliminary result is taken as a cue, the implied lack of cosmic expansion re-opens the age-old question of the size of the cosmos. Fortunately, perhaps, a general-relativistic size limitation remains in charge if the mass density in the cosmos is uniform. In this case, not too much is changed compared to the standard paradigm: The cosmos can still be a pulsatile cosmos, for example, albeit so on a longer time scale.

If the assumption of a uniform mass density is dropped, on the other hand, the general­

relativistic bound is no longer finite. This stationary solution to the original Einstein equations was discovered by Benoit Mandelbrot [4], a fact which is not very well known. If the fractal dimensionality of the mass distribution is assumed to be unity (so that twice as large a radius contains not eight times but only twice as much mass - as in an ultra-light hole­ ridden Swiss cheese), the Schwarzschild radius which limits the size of the cosmos becomes infinite. For twice as much mass by definition has twice-as-large a Schwarzschild radius (and so on), so that no finite limit is reached in the present case. An exactly 1-D Mandelbrot cosmos is both stationary and unbounded. Peebles almost immediately found that the empirical fractal dimensionality of galaxies is about 1.2 up to large distances [5]. This and subsequent data can be re-evaluated by dropping the original assumption of a progressive lack of volume as the remaining distance to the primordial fireball shrinks toward zero. The validity of Peebles' near-unity result will thereby be extended to covering the greater part of the visible universe.

If this prediction is correct, a "Brunian cosmos" (in honor of Giordano Bruno) of potentially unbounded extension in both space and time becomes an option again- But would not the other "pillars of the big bang" automatically preclude so far-reaching a conclusion? Surprisingly, this is not the case. The cosmic background radiation -- the strongest ally -- would assume the role of "mean cosmic temperature" in the sense of Assis [6]. The also observed large-scale fluctuations in the WMAP would reflect a giant honeycomb structure that lies beyond the range of current telescopes (although some infrared and x-ray sources may already be pointing the way). The three other major pillars - primordial nucleosynthesis, inflation and accelerated expansion - would have to wait in line until the gross features have been straightened out. The third (large-distance dimming) may, by the way, prove reducible to Peebles' little-known (1+z)--4 formula [7], cf. [8].

But how about the riddles newly imported by a modern Brunian cosmos? First, in the absence of a far-from-equilibrium big bang, the persistent far-from-equilibrium state of the observable universe becomes incomprehensible. A gravitational effect partially anticipated by Einstein in 1912 [9] may possibly solve the mystery: Any particle in rectilinear motion inside a Newtonian (or Einsteinian) void enjoys a forward acceleration [10], cf. [11]. If this is so, gravitational energy gets "recycled" into kinetic energy in a Carnot-like manner. The same mechanism, by the way, could explain - jointly with Hawking radiation [12] - the second major new riddle that arises: the empirical "non-devouredness" of almost all matter by age-old black holes.

The main asset of a classical explanation of cosmological redshift, when held against the backdrop of the standard model, seems to lie in the fact that it introduces no hypotheses. lt only uses facts that are implicit in classical (post-Newtonian) mechanics and special and general relativity anyhow. lts predictions are irrefutable once their size has been correctly determined. What is surprising is only how many accepted hypotheses suddenly lose their hard-won plausibility.

Nevertheless it would be nice to have direct evidence as well. Very faint distant x-ray point sources appear to possess redshifts in excess of 30. This is because, on the one hand, the sensitivity ofx-ray telescopes is presently 1000 times greater than that of light telescopes [13]

- so that they can look 30 times (squareroot of 1000) deeper into space in principle - and, on the other, x-ray point sources continue to pop up at the lowest brightnesses [13]. This empirically suggested, two-tiered conclusion is incompatible with the big bang scenario (which leaves no room for redshifts beyond about 10 for massive objects). lt is about tobe decided by direct redshi:ft measurements in progress [13]. A hard - if weaker - fact is the recent optical discovery of strongly redshifted old galaxies 12 billion light years away, which has put cosmology into a full-fledged crisis [14,15]. While almost any way out appears acceptable at the time being, the above explanatory scenario was arrived at independently.

To conclude, the classical-mechanical finding of Fermi deceleration has upset the decades­ old belief that only a relativistic mechanism can account for the Rubble law. By coincidence, an empirical crisis holds cosmology in its grip in which fiddling with the usual culprits (like the star formation rate in young galaxies) seems insufficient to rescue the big bang model. In

,.:;uch a situation, even an at first sight alien, chaos-borne ray of light can acquire a warm glow.

I thank Christophe Letellier, Heinrich Kuypers, Dieter Fröhlich, Normann Kleiner, Peter Weibel, Erwin Wendling, Hans Diebner and Florian Grond for discussions. For J.O.R.

[1] O.E. Rossler, D. Fröhlich and N. Kleiner, Time-symmetric Hubble-like law: Light rays grazing randomly moving galaxies show distance-proportional redshift. Z. Naturforsch. 58 . 807-809 (2003).

[2] O.E. Rossler, Cosmic shear's temporal fluctuations generate a distance-proportional redshift in both time directions: Minibang theory. Chaos, Solitons & Fractals 12, 1335- 1338 (2004).

[3] A. Loskutov, A.B. Ryabov and L.G Akinshin, Analysis of billiards with time-dependent boundaries. Facta Universitatis Series Mechanics, Automatic Control and Robotics 11, 99- 116 (2001).

[4] B.B. Mandelbrot, CR. Acad. Sci. Paris A 280, 618 (1975).

[5] M. Seldner and P.J.E. Peebles, Astrophysical J 215, 703 (1977).

[6] A.K.T. Assis, "Relational Mechamics." Montreal: Apeiron 1999.

[7] P.J.E. Peebles, Principles of Physical Cosmology. Princeton University Press 1993, p. 226.

[8] O.E. Rossler, "Darkness intensified: Existence of a nonlinear threshold in redshift­ induced dimming." Z. Naturforsch. 54, 453-454 (1999).

[9] A. Einstein, Does there exist a gravitational effect analogous to electrodynamic induction?

"Collected Papers," English Translation edition, Vol. 4, pp. 126-129. Princeton University

Press 1996.

[10] O.E. Rossler, A morphogenetic instability in gravitation. Physica D 2004 (invited paper submitted).

[11] The term "Fermi acceleration" was already reserved by Loskutov et al. [3] for a different mechanism (the heating-up of billiards subject to repetitive head-on collisions with moving boundaries). Thus, a new term (“Einstein acceleration”?) will be needed for the present mechanism which has nothing to do with billiards and, by the way, does not extend to light, provided it is going to be confirmed.

[12] S.W. Hawking, Particle creation by black holes. Commun. Math. Phys. 33, 323 (1973).

[13] R. Giacconi, Kepler lecture, held at the University of Tübingen, July 2003.

[14] J.-M. Bonnet-Bidaud, Le big bang face à ses contradictions, Ciel&espace No. 412, 42- 44, September 2004.

[15] Editorial: Mature galaxies in young universe at odds with theory, Scientific American online, September 2004.

Remark added in 2020: Since this paper was written in 2004, Cryodynamics – explaining cosmology causally for good – got discovered; so this text remains just a step on the road.

Is that has an effect on the biological life

Some scientists believe gravitational lesing has a much less contribution to the overall actual observed effect (i.e. Einstein rings) than originally described by General Relativity (GR) and more contributed to a normal Snell light refraction phenomenon on the surface atmosphere of the star:

Any arguemnts?

If the Earth going through space would be close to a black hole, it would be gone to the center of it. Perhaps it is surrounded by low-density air

My questions are:

1. Could exist a black hole there without eating Earth surrounded perhaps by vacuum?

2. If it is possible that the black hole generates a lot of energy in the out border of the event horizon that could explain that the Earth heating is about twice the received sun power?

3. If it could explain the Earth magnetic field

4. It's mass

5. How to detect it

6. If it is true, perhaps earth temperature is higher than several million years before. It is known what was the Earth temperature then?

I make these questions because I am worried about the danger of generating a stable black hole in a scientific test. If one of them were created, it would go to the center of the Earth eating earth generating a thin tunnel.

Physics is one of the physical sciences. The two other physical sciences are chemistry and astronomy. Astrophysics is the branch of physics that deals with space and celestial bodies.

Carroll and Ostlie in An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics, second edition at page 1099 remark: “Cosmological redshifts are caused by the expansion of the space through which the light travels, so for extremely large distances the total elongation of the wavelength depends on how the expansion of the universe has changed with time.” The 4/3 laws are based on dimensional capacity and imply a distance in 3 dim space stretches by 4/3 compared to the same distance in 4 dim space-time. Is there a connection?

It may be a binary black hole accretion disk or an AGN.

Can anybody please share the IDL source code for Hapke photometric modeling?

Thank you,