William J. Fisk's research while affiliated with Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and other places
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Publications (122)
One‐hundred seventy‐two households were recruited from regions with high outdoor air pollution (Fresno and Riverside, CA) to participate in a randomized, sham‐controlled, cross‐over study to determine the effectiveness of high‐efficiency air filtration to reduce indoor particle exposures. In 129 households, stand‐alone HEPA air cleaners were placed...
This paper reviews empirical data from evaluations of the influence of residential energy efficiency retrofits on indoor environmental quality conditions and self-reported thermal comfort and health. Data were extracted from 36 studies described in 44 papers plus two reports. Nearly all reviewed studies were performed in Europe or United States. Mo...
This paper provides meta‐analyses of the published findings relating the respiratory health of occupants of schools with visible dampness, water damage, visible mold, and/or mold odor. Random effects models were used to develop central estimates and confidence limits for the associations of respiratory health effects with school dampness and mold....
This paper reviews studies of the relationships between ventilation rates (VRs) in homes and occupant health, primarily respiratory health. Five cross‐sectional studies, seven case‐control studies, and eight intervention studies met inclusion criteria. Nearly all studies controlled for a range of potential confounders and most intervention studies...
PM2.5 exposure is associated with significant health risk. Exposures in homes derive from both outdoor and indoor sources, with emissions occurring primarily in discrete events. Data on emission event magnitudes and schedules are needed to support simulation-based studies of exposures and mitigations. This study applied an identification and charac...
Based on a review of literature published in refereed archival journals, ventilation rates in classrooms often fall far short of the minimum ventilation rates specified in standards. There is compelling evidence, from both cross sectional and intervention studies, of an association of increased student performance with increased ventilation rates....
This paper evaluates the mortality-related benefits and costs of improvements in particle filtration in U.S. homes and commercial buildings based on models with empirical inputs. The models account for time spent in various environments as well as activity levels and associated breathing rates. The scenarios evaluated include improvements in filter...
This paper introduces the Commercial Building Energy Saver (CBES), an energy retrofit analysis toolkit, developed by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. The CBES Toolkit evaluates the energy use of a building, identifies and evaluates retrofit measures. The toolkit provides a rich set of features for energy benchmarking and retrofit analysis, as...
Background
Limited evidence has associated lower ventilation rates (VRs) in offices with higher illness-related absence rates.
Methods
We studied spaces in office buildings, selected without knowledge of their VRs, in three California climate zones. In each study space, real-time logging sensors measured carbon dioxide and thermal parameters for o...
We measured particulate matter (PM), acrolein, and other indoor air contaminants in eight visits to grocery stores in California. Retail stores of other types (hardware, furniture, and apparel) were also sampled on additional visits. Based on tracer gas decay data, most stores had adequate ventilation according to minimum ventilation rate standards...
This paper reviews the potential health consequences of changes in climate that affect indoor environments, with an emphasis on residential environments in the U.S. and Europe. These changes in climate, include increases in the frequency and severity of heat waves, severe storms coupled with sea level rise, and wildfires, plus increases in urban ai...
We assessed the chronic health risks from inhalation exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and particulate matter (PM2.5) in U.S. offices, schools, grocery, and other retail stores, and evaluated how chronic health risks were affected by changes in ventilation rates and air filtration efficiency. Representative concentrations of VOCs and PM...
The energy and IAQ implications of varying prescribed minimum outdoor air ventilation rates (VRs) in California office buildings were estimated using the EnergyPlus building simulation software tool. Weighting factors were used to scale these model predictions to state wide estimates. Energy use predictions were then verified using surveyed Califor...
Unlabelled:
Ventilation rates (VRs) in buildings must adequately control indoor levels of pollutants; however, VRs are constrained by the energy costs. Experiments in a simulated office assessed the effects of VR per occupant on perceived air quality (PAQ), Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) symptoms, and decision-making performance. A parallel set of e...
Unlabelled:
This field study measured ventilation rates and indoor air quality in 21 visits to retail stores in California. Three types of stores, such as grocery, furniture/hardware stores, and apparel, were sampled. Ventilation rates measured using a tracer gas decay method exceeded the minimum requirement of California's Title 24 Standard in al...
This research assesses benefits of adding to California Title-24 ventilation rate (VR) standards a performance-based option, similar to the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers “Indoor Air Quality Procedure” (IAQP) for retail spaces. Ventilation rates and concentrations of contaminants of concern (CoC) were mea...
This study examines the human health implications of natural ventilation in California office buildings. We modeled work-time exposures using field data on indoor and outdoor ozone and particulate matter from four case studies in naturally ventilated offices and published data from mechanically ventilated offices. We also modeled the amount of time...
The current focus on building energy retrofit provides an opportunity to simultaneously improve indoor environmental quality (IEQ). Toward this end, we developed a protocol for selecting packages of retrofits that both save energy and improve IEQ in apartments. The protocol specifies the methodology for selecting retrofits from a candidate list whi...
Formaldehyde emissions from fiberglass and polyester filters used in building heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems were measured in bench-scale tests using 10 and 17 cm2 coupons over 24 to 720 h periods. Experiments were performed at room temperature and four different relative humidity settings (20, 50, 65 and 80 % RH). Two dif...
Limited evidence associates inadequate classroom ventilation rates (VRs) with increased illness absence (IA). We investigated relationships between VRs and IA in California elementary schools over two school years in 162 3(rd) -5(th) grade classrooms in 28 schools in three school districts: South Coast (SC), Bay Area (BA), and Central Valley (CV)....
A study was conducted to investigate the possibility of CO2 emerging as a potential source of indoor pollution. It was observed that the magnitude of the indoor-outdoor difference in CO2 concentration increased, as the outdoor air ventilation rate per person decreases resulting in indoor pollution. The results from the study stimulated efforts to e...
Background: Associations of higher indoor carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations with impaired work performance, increased health symptoms, and poorer perceived air quality have been attributed to correlation of indoor CO2 with concentrations of other indoor air pollutants that are also influenced by rates of outdoor-air ventilation.
Objectives: We as...
This paper provides quantitative estimates of benefits and costs of providing different amounts of outdoor air ventilation in U.S. offices. For four scenarios that modify ventilation rates, we estimated changes in sick building syndrome (SBS) symptoms, work performance, short-term absence, and building energy consumption. The estimated annual econo...
Manganese oxide-based catalysts have been synthesized and tested for the abatement of formaldehyde, an ubiquitous indoor pollutant which is not effectively eliminated by most air cleaning technologies. Catalysts were prepared by co-precipitation of MnSO4 and NaMnO4 followed by curing at 100, 200 and 400 °C. Characterization was performed using X-ra...
Prior research suggests that chemical processes taking place on the surface of particle filters employed in buildings may lead to the formation of harmful secondary byproducts. We investigated ozone reactions with fiberglass, polyester, cotton/polyester and polyolefin filter media, as well as hydrolysis of filter media additives. Studies were carri...
Appendix 1 - Details of search strategy. description of literature search, including specific search terms.
Dampness and mold have been shown in qualitative reviews to be associated with a variety of adverse respiratory health effects, including respiratory tract infections. Several published meta-analyses have provided quantitative summaries for some of these associations, but not for respiratory infections. Demonstrating a causal relationship between d...
A prototypical office building meeting the prescriptive requirements of the 2008 California Building Energy Efficiency Standards
(Title 24) was used in EnergyPlus simulations to calculate the energy savings potential of demand controlled ventilation (DCV)
in five typical California climates per three design occupancy densities and two minimum venti...
It is important to control outdoor airflow rates into HVAC systems in terms of energy conservation and healthy indoor environment. Technologies are being developed to measure outdoor air (OA) flow rates through OA intake louvers on a real time basis. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the airflow characteristics through an OA intake louver...
Heating, ventilating, and cooling classrooms in California consume substantial electrical energy. Indoor air quality (IAQ) in classrooms affects student health and performance. In addition to airborne pollutants that are emitted directly by indoor sources and those generated outdoors, secondary pollutants can be formed indoors by chemical reaction...
Are the carbon dioxide (CO2) sensors in your demand controlled ventilation systems sufficiently accurate? The data from these sensors are used to automatically modulate minimum rates of outdoor air ventilation. The goal is to keep ventilation rates at or above design requirements while adjusting the ventilation rate with changes in occupancy in ord...
This paper reviews current knowledge about the suitability of sorbent-based air cleaning for removing volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from the air in commercial buildings, as needed to enable reductions in ventilation rates and associated energy savings. The principles of sorbent air cleaning are introduced, criteria are suggested for sorbent sys...
Seit es Raumlufttechnische Anlagen gibt, wurde über ihre Wirtschaftlichkeit nachgedacht, am häufigsten, um verschiedene Anlagenkonzepte
miteinander zu vergleichen. Ein Zusammenhang von Raumklima und Produktivität wurde früher auch schon untersucht. Ein Überblick
über einige sehr frühe und ausführliche Arbeiten wird in [O-36, 37] gegeben, bei denen...
Regents of the University of California.
The submitted manuscript has been authored by a contractor of the US Government under contract No. DE‐AC03‐76SF00098. Accordingly, the US Government retains a nonexclusive, royalty‐free license to publish or reproduce the published form of this contribution, or allow others to do so, for US Government purpos...
Approximately 1 quad (1 EJ) of energy, costing $7.2 billion, is used annually for conditioning the OA ventilation air supplied to U.S. commercial, institutional, and government, buildings. The rate of OA ventilation also affects occupant health. In cross-sectional studies of buildings with various rates of OA ventilation, lower ventilation rates ha...
Purpose The goal of this project was to develop, based on the experience of those who investigate health complaints in buildings, practical strategies for preventing building-related symptoms in office buildings, suitable for use by those who own, lease, or manage office space. Methodology/approach Ideas from six experienced building investigators...
The Institute of Medicine (IOM) of the National Academy of Sciences recently completed a critical review of the scientific literature pertaining to the association of indoor dampness and mold contamination with adverse health effects. In this paper, we report the results of quantitative meta-analysis of the studies reviewed in the IOM report. We de...
The rate of outdoor air (OA) supply affects building energy consumption, occupant health, and work performance; however, minimum ventilation rates are often poorly controlled. Real-time measurements of OA flow rates into HVAC systems would enable improved flow control. This article demonstrates that at least some of the available technologies for r...
Insufficient information has been available on measured ventilation rates and symptoms in office workers. using US EPA data from 100 large US office buildings, they assessed relationships in multivariate models between ventilation/person and lower respiratory and mucous membrane symptoms. Three preliminary ventilation estimates were used, based on...
Efficient removal of indoor generated airborne particles and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in office buildings and other large buildings may allow for a reduction in outdoor air supply rates with concomitant energy savings while still maintaining acceptable indoor air quality in these buildings. Ultra-Violet Photocatalytic Oxidation (UVPCO) air...
Although the rate of outdoor air (OA) ventilation has a substantial influence on building energy consumption and occupant health, the available data indicate the outdoor air ventilation rates are poorly controlled in many buildings. Technologies being marketed for real time measurement of the flow rates of outdoor air into HVAC systems should enabl...
Indoor temperature is one of the fundamental characteristics of the indoor environment. It can be controlled with a degree of accuracy dependent on the building and its HVAC system. The indoor temperature affects several human responses, including thermal comfort, perceived air quality, sick building syndrome symptoms and performance at work. In th...
This study estimated the health, energy, and economic benefits of an economizer ventilation control system that increases outside air supply during mild weather to save energy. A model of the influence of ventilation rate on airborne transmission of respiratory illnesses was used to extend the limited data relating ventilation rate with illness and...
During the last few years, new technologies have been introduced for real-time continuous measurement of the flow rates of outdoor air (OA) into HVAC systems; however, an evaluation of these measurements technologies has not previously been published. This document describes a test system and protocols developed for a controlled evaluation of these...
Deteriorated indoor climate is commonly related to increases in sick building syndrome symptoms, respiratory illnesses, sick leave, reduced comfort and losses in productivity. The cost of deteriorated indoor climate for the society is high. Some calculations show that the cost is higher than the heating energy costs of the same buildings. Also buil...
Indoor temperature is one of the fundamental characteristics of the indoor environment. It can be controlled with different accuracy depending on the building and its HVAC system. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the potential benefits of improved temperature control, and apply the information for a cost-benefit analyses. The indoor temper...
Abstract The existing literature contains strong evidence that characteristics of buildings and indoor environments significantly influence rates of respiratory disease, allergy and asthma symptoms, sick building symptoms, and worker performance. Theoretical considerations, and limited empirical data, suggest that existing technologies and procedur...
Macroeconomic analyses indicate a high cost to society of a deteriorated indoor climate. The few example calculations performed to date indicate that measures taken to improve IEQ are highly cost-effective when health and productivity benefits are considered. We believe that cost-benefit analyses of building designs and operations should routinely...
Indoor exposures to toxic and odorous volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are of general concern. Recently, VOCs in portable or relocatable classrooms (RCs) have received particular attention. However, very little was known about indoor environmental quality (IEQ) and the sources, composition, and indoor concentrations of VOCs in RCs. This project ta...
The indoor temperature can be controlled with different levels of accuracy depending on the building and its HVAC system. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the potential productivity benefits of improved temperature control, and to apply the information for a cost-benefit analyses of night-time ventilative cooling, which is a very energy ef...
Indoor nonindustrial work environments were designated a priority research area through the nationwide stakeholder process that created the National Occupational Research Agenda. A multidisciplinary research team used member consensus and quantitative estimates, with extensive external review, to develop a specific research agenda. The team outline...
When selecting minimum ventilation rates, employers should balance the well-recognized energy costs of providing higher minimum ventilation rates with the expected, but less well quantified, health benefits from a higher ventilation rate. This is a summary of the paper by Milton, et al. that found low employee sick leave associated with high ventil...
We studied the effects of removing small airborne particles in an office building without unusual contaminant sources or occupant complaints.
We conducted a double-blind crossover study of enhanced particle filtration in an office building in the Midwest United States in 1993. We replaced standard particle filters, in separate ventilation systems o...
Research into indoor environmental quality (IEQ) and its effects on health, comfort and performance of occupants is becoming increasingly essential. Facility managers are interested in IEQ's close relationship to energy use. Employers hope to enhance employee comfort and productivity, reduce absenteeism and health-care costs, and reduce risk of lit...
This paper presents major findings of a field study on the performance of five thermal distribution systems in four large commercial buildings. The five systems studied are typical single-duct or dual-duct constant air volume (CAV) systems and variable air volume (VAV) systems, each of which serves an office building or a retail building with floor...
The objective of this particular Indoor Health and Productivity (IHP) project is to improve the communication of research findings in the indoor health and productivity area to scientists and building professionals (e.g. architects and engineers) and, thus, to help stimulate implementation of existing knowledge.
A laboratory pilot study has been undertaken with the material that showed the most promise (high capacity and low pressure drop) based on the literature review and associated calculations. The best-performing air cleaner was a commercially available pleated filter that contained a thin layer of small activated carbon particles between two sheets o...
LBNL-51101 Final Methodology for a Field Study of Indoor Environmental Quality and Energy Efficiency in New Relocatable Classrooms in Northern California Derek G. Shendell, Dennis Di Bartolomeo, William J. Fisk, Alfred T. Hodgson, Tosh Hotchi, Seung-Min Lee, Douglas P. Sullivan, and Michael G. Apte Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Indoor Envi...
Relocatable classrooms (RCs) are widely employed by California school districts to satisfy rapidly expanding space requirements due to population growth and class size reduction policies. There is public concern regarding indoor environmental quality (IEQ) in schools, particularly in RCs, but very little data to support or dispel these concerns. Se...
The process of characterizing human exposure to particulate matter requires information on both particle concentrations in microenvironments and the time-specific activity budgets of individuals among these microenvironments. Because the average amount of time spent indoors by individuals in the US is estimated to be greater than 75%, accurate char...
It is commonly assumed that efforts to simultaneously develop energy efficient building technologies and to improve indoor environmental quality (IEQ) are unfeasible. The primary reason for this is that IEQ improvements often require additional ventilation that is costly from an energy standpoint. It is currently thought that health and productivit...
Higher indoor concentrations of air pollutants due, in part, to lower ventilation rates are a potential cause of sick building syndrome (SBS) symptoms in office workers. The indoor carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration is an approximate surrogate for indoor concentrations of other occupant-generated pollutants and for ventilation rate per occupant. Us...
Theoretical considerations and empirical data suggest that existing technologies and procedures can improve indoor environments in a manner that signifi-cantly increases productivity and health. The existing literature contains moderate to strong evidence that characteristics of buildings and indoor environments significantly influence rates of com...
During parts of 7 consecutive weeks, indoor and outdoor particle number concentrations and particle sizes were measured versus time in a large sealed air-conditioned office building without tobacco smoking. Building ventilation rates were also measured. During some periods, the normal filters in the building’s air handling systems were replaced wit...
A portion of electronic equipment failures is a consequence of particle deposition on electronic circuits in normal indoor environments. Deposited hygroscopic particles reduce the electrical isolation (EI) between conductors. In laboratory experiments, we investigated the mechanisms, locations, and effects of particle deposition on electronic circu...
Air and dust samples were collected on two floors of an office building during a double-blind particle intervention study to examine spatial and temporal variability of airborne endotoxin over a period of weeks, and to characterize endotoxin activity and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) content in carpet and chair dust. Air samples were collected on multip...
In laboratory experiments, we investigated two task/ambient conditioning systems with air supplied from desk-mounted air outlets to efficiently ventilate the breathing zone of heated manikins seated at desks. In most experiments, the task conditioning systems provided outside air while a conventional ventilation system provided additional space coo...
Relationships between indoor carbon dioxide (CO2) levels and mucous membrane and lower respiratory sick building syndrome (SBS) symptoms are explored in 41 office buildings from the US EPA BASE study. Elevated indoor CO2 concentrations may indicate inadequate ventilation per occupant and elevated indoor pollutant concentrations, leading to SBS symp...
The available scientific data suggest that existing technologies and procedures can improve indoor environmental quality (IEQ) in a manner that significantly increases productivity and health. While there is considerable uncertainty in the estimates of the magnitudes of productivity gains that may be obtained, the projected gains are very large. Fo...
Through field studies in large commercial buildings and reviews of building plans, we investigated the effective leakage areas (ELAs), air-leakage rates, and conduction heat gains of duct systems. Different methods for measuring air-leakage rates were also compared. ELAs of supply ducts ranged from 0.4 to 2.0 cm2 per square meter of floor area serv...
1.0 ABSTRACT The existing literature offers relatively strong evidence that characteristics of buildings and indoor environments significantly influence prevalences of respiratory disease, allergy and asthma symptoms, symptoms of sick building syndrome, and worker performance. Theoretical considerations, and limited empirical data, suggest that exi...
With sensor-based demand-controlled ventilation (SBDCV), the rate of ventilation is modulated over time based on the signals from indoor air pollutant or occupancy sensors. SBDCV offers two potential advantages: better control of indoor pollutant concentrations, and lower energy use and peak energy demand. Based on theoretical considerations and on...
To study the effects of atmospheric pressure fluctuations on the entry of radon and soil-gas contaminants into houses, we have simultaneously measured the changes in atmospheric pressure and the gas flow rate between the interior of an experimental basement structure and the underlying soil. Atmospheric pressure fluctuations draw soil gas into the...
The California Healthy Building Study was designed to assess relations between ventilation system type and office worker symptoms in a set of U.S. buildings selected without regard to worker complaints. Twelve public office buildings in northern California meeting specific eligibility criteria were studied in the summer of 1990: three naturally ven...
Two new radon mitigation techniques are introduced and their evaluation in a field study complemented by numerical model predictions is described. Based on numerical predictions, installation of a sub gravel membrane at the study site resulted in a factor of 2 reduction in indoor radon concentrations. Experimental data indicated that installation o...
The performance of sub-slab-ventilation (SSV) systems has been parametrically studied with a numerical model that was earlier compared successfully with experiment (Bonnefous et al., 1992). The model distinguishes between the sub-slab gravel and the underlying soil. It is used w examine system performance for the following system parameters: the pe...
Twelve public office buildings were selected for a study of relationships between worker's health symptoms and a number of building, workspace, job, and personal factors. Three buildings were naturally ventilated, three were mechanically ventilated, and six were air conditioned. Information on the prevalences of work-related symptoms, demographics,...
Previous studies have reported a large and persistent discrepancy between field measurements and model predictions of pressure-driven entry of soil gas into houses, the phenomenon that causes high concentrations of radon indoors. The discrepancy is often attributed to poor understanding of inherently complex field sites. This paper compares measure...
The effectiveness of the technique of subslab ventilation (SSV) for limiting radon entry into basements was investigated through complementary experimentation and numerical modeling. Subslab pressure fields resulting from SSV were measured in six well-characterized basements, each with a different combination of soil and aggregate permeability. The...
Radon control systems were installed and evaluated in fourteen homes in the Spokane River Valley/Rathdrum Prairie and in one home in Vancouver, Washington. Because of local soil conditions, subsurface ventilation (SSV) by pressurization was always more effective in these houses than SSV by depressurization in reducing indoor radon levels to below g...
Fourteen single-family detached houses in Spokane, Washington, and Coeur D'Alene, Idaho, were monitored for two years after high concentrations of indoor radon had been mitigated. Each house was monitored quarterly using mailed alpha-track radon detectors deployed in each zone of the structure. To assess performance of mitigation systems during the...
This study focuses on one part of a large project. Phase one of that project assessed Pacific Northwest EAHP performance based on computer simulations. This phase focuses on laboratory evaluations of EAHP performance and a brief update to the preliminary assessment. (A later phase will conduct a field study of EAHPs.) Researchers monitored the perf...
Residential energy consumption can be decreased if air infiltration is reduced by constructing houses more tightly. In some cases, however, reduced air infiltration can lead to problems with indoor air quality (e.g., excess humidity and high levels of indoor-generated air contaminants). One solution to this problem is to install a residential air-t...
The Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) has proposed a ten year program to encourage the weatherization of electrically heated homes in the Pacific Northwest. The purpose of this program is to reduce residential electrical energy demand for space heating. If air infiltration rates are reduced by employing house tightening measures, indoor air qua...
LBL has constructed a facility for testing various performance aspects of residential air-to-air heat exchangers. When used in conjunction with a mechanical ventilation system, a residential heat exchanger permits the adequate ventilation of a residence while recovering most of the energy normally lost during ventilation. By constructing or retrofi...
Test results obtained on five different residential heat exchangers are presented and the performance criteria, the test facility, and the test procedures used are described. The performance parameters measured were heat exchanger effectiveness (a measure of heat transfer ability), airstream static pressure drop, net cross-stream leakage, and fan s...
It is commonly assumed that efforts to simultaneously develop energy efficient building technologies and to improve indoor environmental quality (IEQ) are unfeasible. The primary reason for this is that IEQ improvements often require additional ventilation that is costly from an energy standpoint. It is currently thought that health and productivit...