William G. Hayward’s research while affiliated with Lingnan University and other places

... Additionally, random-effects principal components analysis (PCA) was performed using the rePCA function in the lme4 package to confirm that the model had no random effects with (almost) zero variance explained (Bates et al., 2015b). Model selection was based on the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) and the condition that no random effects explained less than 1% of the variance (Jin et al., 2024). Prior to each analysis, the statistical assumptions were verified (e.g., the normality and homoscedasticity of residuals). ...

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Chunk reading strategy training improves multiword processing by Japanese English learners

... It remains possible that individuation plays a critical role in the development of holistic processing, which future studies should investigate by directly comparing individuation-based and category-based learning. Additionally, we did not collect eye-tracking data, which could provide deeper insight into attentional strategies and feature integration during holistic processing (Kundel et al., 2007;Zhong et al., 2023). Since holistic perception may be linked to distinct gaze patterns, future research using eye-tracking could clarify how visual information is prioritized when processing configural versus featural stimuli. ...

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Isolated Configuration: Holistic Processing Beyond the Realm of Faces

... Indeed, Rayner (2009) also posited that fixation location (overt attention) and covert attention are strongly associated in more complex tasks, thus eye-movements have the potential to reflect underlying cognitive processes in FR tasks. Following this rationale, in the FR literature, eye-tracking techniques have been frequently utilized to understand the link between eye-movements and holistic/part-based processing (e.g., Zhong et al., 2021), perception of emotional expressions (see Lim et al., 2020) and face recognition (e.g., Barton et al., 2006;Chuk et al., 2014;Xu & Tanaka, 2013). For example, when participants were instructed to fixate on a specific point on a face to restrict free eye-movements, their FR performances substantially decreased compared to a condition in which they were allowed to view the face images freely (Henderson et al., 2005). ...

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How do face processing strategies and eye-movements contribute to individual differences in face recognition ability?

... There are still so many unanswered questions surrounding face recognition and processing. Can we treat faces simply as other objects (Richler et al., 2012;Wang et al., 2016) within a cognitive, biological, social or psychological setting when there may be other 15 aspects that are not being implicitly considered (Burns, 2016;Jin et al., 2021). Are we getting closer to answering these fundamental questions? ...

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I See You: Is the Garner Interference task suitable for use in the configural versus componential paradigm of face recognition and does this translate to an online environment?

... The RB effect suggests that repetition impairs the formation of distinct, robust object-level episodic representations, making it difficult to distinguish the two word's instances as separate perceptual events during encoding. Consequently, repetition impairs processing efficiency and prolongs fixation durations on the subsequent repeated word instance, a phenomenon observed in recent studies (Burt & Jolley, 2017;Harris et al., 2021;Koivisto & Revonsuo, 2008;Leggett et al., 2019;Wang et al., 2021). For example, by using the rapid serial visual presentation paradigm, Koivisto and Revonsuo (2008) showed that repeated targets began to show greater negativity around 150 ms and persisted until 300-350 ms across the temporal and occipital lobes. ...

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Repeated Previews Elicit an Inhibitory Parafoveal-on-Foveal Effect in Chinese Reading: Implications for Attention Allocation

... When confidence ratings have been collected for face matching judgements, higher levels of confidence have been observed for trials answered correctly than for trials with incorrect responses (Bruce et al., 1999;Hopkins & Lyle, 2020;Stephens et al., 2017). Similarly, confidence ratings are broadly aligned with response accuracy across other tasks of face perception, including face recognition (Grabman & Dodson, 2020), searching for faces in crowds (Davis et al., 2018;Kramer et al., 2020), and recognising which faces were present in previously shown arrays (Ji & Hayward, 2020). Interestingly, super-recognisers have been shown to generally place high levels of confidence in their responses, whether correct or incorrect (Towler et al., 2023), although this may be the result of their prior knowledge of their superior performance. ...

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EXPRESS: Face matching and self-insight: A Registered Report investigating individual differences in metacognitive sensitivity, efficiency, and bias

... First, we removed whole epochs with any vertical or horizontal eye movement sample (including blinks) with an absolute amplitude exceeding 25 μV (about 1 • visual angle) and an amplitude change of over 20 μV in 50 ms in the period between 100 ms before and 250 ms after stimulus onset (0.6% of trials; range: 0.4% to 19.9%). Using an in-house automated routine (Oxner et al. 2019), we then identified outlier channel activity within epochs that was unusually high or low relative to other channels in the same epoch and/or other epochs for that channel (cf. Junghöfer et al. 2000). ...

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Repetition of critical search features modulates EEG lateralized potentials in visual search

... The response to the target was affected by the magnitude relationship of the two subliminal prime numbers. It was consistent with the results of previous studies that found that people could process the relationship of two simultaneously presented unconscious stimuli, including the pointing direction congruence between two masked arrows [19,34], the sameness of the shapes of two objects [35] or two letters [18], category congruence between two masked words [17], and emotional valence congruence between two masked faces [16]. Overall, it seems that unconscious integration is a general brain processing mechanism for a wide range of stimulus types. ...

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Unconscious Integration of Categorical Relationship of Two Subliminal Numbers in Comparison with “5”

... Given the historical and contemporary necessity of effectively interacting with-and in-groups, several scientists have argued that ensemble perception may be critical for adaptive social functioning (Phillips et al., 2014;Sanchez-Burks & Huy, 2009;Sweeny et al., 2013;Whitney et al., 2014). Rapidly extracting the emotion of a group may be particularly important for making inferences about the threats (e.g., facial anger) or opportunities for affiliation (e.g., facial joy) provided by a group (Alt et al., 2019;Goodale et al., 2018;Thornton et al., 2019). Thus, the degree to which people think a group provides affiliative opportunities may depend on ensemble perceptions of emotion-implicating a social-functional role for ensemble perception that we examine here. ...

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Ensemble Perception of Emotion: Incidental Effects of Social Identity

... One approach to investigate such qualitative alterations in autism is the norm-based "face space." This theoretical framework posits a multidimensional space in which faces are stored along dimensions that capture characteristics that can vary independently (Trapp et al., 2018;Valentine et al., 2016;Wuttke & Schweinberger, 2019). Typically, in order to build a perceptual norm (i.e., the center of this face space), the "average" face is continuously updated with new facerelated sensory input (Rhodes, 2017). ...

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Disentangling the perceptual underpinnings of autism: Evidence from a face aftereffects experiment