Vladislava S. Batyrgareieva’s research while affiliated with Research Institute for Science and Law of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and other places

Objective: Introduction: All social life spheres in Ukraine are influenced by corruption. Ukrainian citizens were inquired in order to determine corruption rate in various social spheres. It was conditioned by reforming criminal justice and administrative management, which is directed, particularly, for liquidation of corruption in the state. Special emphasize is stressed on corruption rate in the medical sphere. The aim of the article is to determine: 1) population's attitude towards to corruption, in particular, in the medical sphere; 2) the most corruptive social spheres; 3) efficiency of anti-corruption measures; 4) readiness of population to participate into struggle with corruption. Patients and methods: Materials and methods: The study is grounded on dialectical, comparative, analytic, synthetic, sociological (special-purpose inquiry form, interview), statistic and comprehensive research methods. The study group consisted of 1 120 citizens and 513 medical and pharmaceutical professionals of Ukraine. Questions were related to: 1) citizens' contact with corruption; 2) corruption expansion rate in state authorities, self-governing authorities, in various infrastructure spheres, particularly, in healthcare; 3) awareness about struggle with corruption in the state and in the region and determination of citizens' readiness to cope with corruption. Results: Results: Corruption contact level of citizens remains steadily high. Corruption in the medical sphere is the most widespread: during the previous year before the inquire 63% respondents were involved into corruptive schemes. Corruption in the medical sphere can be subdivided in the following levels: from patient to doctor; inside the hospital - from a healthcare institution employee to the executive hospital staff; on state level concerning state procurements of medications. A bribe to health care professionals was given for: receipt of a sick leave certificate and various references (for example, about unfitness for military service, fitness for driving a car or fulfillment of particular works); high-quality conduct of an operation, medical servicing rendering; writing out a "necessary" prescription; approval or hiding of any bodily injuries; falsification of a true cause of death. All health care professionals have come across different corruptive practices, among which the following payments are widespread: for employment in a hospital, license for private medical practice or establishment of private clinics, "avoidance" of checks of healthcare institutions' activity. The largest bribes are given state officials for participation in tenders for medical drugs supply by pharmaceutical companies. All health care professionals have come across different corruptive practices, among which the following payments are widespread: for employment in a hospital, license for private medical practice or establishment of private clinics, "avoidance" of checks of healthcare institutions' activity. Conclusion: Conclusion: Corruption on the sphere of medical practice is complex phenomenon. The conducted poll made it possible to structure the corruption problem, to see its various levels and levels. In respondents' opinion, a scrupulous information campaign is a positive tendency: 45% consider this is a guarantee of anticorruption. Nevertheless, only 5% respondents assume personal notification of anticorruption bodies about receipt of a bribe by medical staff.

Crime structure of any country in the world always has recurrent crime, the scale of which is not amenable to reduction practically. This crime is the most dangerous manifestation of criminal behaviour of a person, because the return of a person to committing new crimes indicates that the measures which were taken to re-socialise them have proved ineffective. Therefore, the problem of criminal recidivism and combating with it occupies a prominent place among issues which are discussed at the level of UN Congresses on the prevention of crime and the treatment of offenders. In the article the provisions of the materials of these Congresses on criminal recidivism and the practice of its prevention are analysed in detail. At the same time, approaches to the calculation of recurrent crimes on the example of separate countries (USA, UK and Ukraine) are clarified. It is concluded that the scale of recidivism because of different methods of counting recurrent crimes is very different in different countries. This leads to the inability to draw a single picture of the prevalence of criminal recidivism in different regions of the world. It is concluded that to achieve appreciable results in the combating recidivism first of all, some methodological issues need to be resolved. One of them should be an attempt at an international level to develop a more or less standardised method of accounting for recidivism in national practices, which would include: firstly, a clear understanding of which offenses should be considered as recurrent; and secondly, the definition of terms based on which quantitative indicators of recidivism are provided. Jebkuras pasaules valsts noziedzības struktūrā vienmēr pastāv recidīvs, kura mērogu praktiski nav iespējams samazināt. Recidīvā noziedzība ir visbīstamākā personas noziedzīgās uzvedības izpausme, jo personas atgriešanās pie jaunu noziedzīgu nodarījumu izdarīšanas liecina, ka pasākumi to socializēšanai ir izrādījušies neefektīvi. Tāpēc recidīva problēma un tā apkarošana ir būtisks jautājums, kas tiek apspriests Apvienoto Nāciju kongresos par noziedzības novēršanu un sankcijām attiecībā uz likumpārkāpējiem. Rakstā analizēti šo kongresu materiāli par noziedzīgo nodarījumu recidīvu un tā novēršanas praksi, raksturotas atsevišķu valstu (ASV, Lielbritānijas un Ukrainas) pieejas noziedzīgo nodarījumu recidīva aprēķināšanā. Secināts, ka dažādās valstīs recidīvisma mērogs atšķirīgu atkārtotu noziegumu skaitīšanas metožu dēļ ir ļoti atšķirīgs. Un tas noved pie tā, ka nav iespējams izveidot vienotu ainu par noziedzīgo nodarījumu recidīva izplatību dažādos pasaules reģionos. Secināts, ka vērā ņemamu rezultātu sasniegšanai recidīva apkarošanā ir jāatrisina daži metodoloģiski jautājumi. Vienam no tiem vajadzētu būt mēģinājumam starptautiskā līmenī izstrādāt vairāk vai mazāk standartizētu recidīvisma uzskaites metodi nacionālajā praksē, kas ietvertu: pirmkārt, skaidri definētu izpratni par to, kuri nodarījumi uzskatāmi par atkārtotiem; un, otrkārt, tādu terminu definēšanu, uz kuru pamata tiek sniegti recidīvisma kvantitatīvie rādītāji.