Virginia W. Berninger’s research while affiliated with University of Washington and other places

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Publications (271)


Concurrent and Longitudinal Relationships Between Written Composition (Length and Quality) and Spelling Errors (Phonographic, Lexical, Morphological, Total) in French Children in Grades 3 and 6 or in Grades 3 and 4
  • Chapter

October 2023

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386 Reads

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Virginia Berninger

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The following chapter aims to explore in an orthographic system like French, if spelling is related concurrently to written composition within specific grade levels (Grade 3, Grade 6, or Grade 4) and longitudinally across grade levels (Grade 3 and Grade 6 or Grade 3 and Grade 4). French spelling is interesting because it includes phonographic irregularities (i.e., inconsistencies), lexical difficulties, and morphological silent markers (e.g., plural noun, adjective, and verb agreement). Pupils were asked in every grade to compose narrative texts either from verbal instructions (Study 1) or from strips (Study 2). Text length, text quality, and three categories of spelling errors were coded and analyzed. Two important results emerged: First, significant concurrent and longitudinal relationships were observed. Both text characteristics (i.e., length and quality) and total spelling errors were significantly correlated longitudinally across grade levels in the two studies. Second, regression analyses provided evidence that the more spelling errors the texts contained, the texts were shorter and rated of lower quality. Further analyzes showed that the errors with the most weight were the lexical errors. This result was unexpected insofar as national assessments in France have reported evidence that morphological errors are the most frequent and the most troublesome in students’ written compositions. Future research should continue to investigate the concurrent and longitudinal relationships of spelling and written composition in orthographies for different languages as well as the instructional applications of these differences.


Common variants (MAF ≥ 0.01) in CYP19A1, UNADJ phenotypes. Effect size (p-value) for dose of the rarer 440 allele with adjustment for non-European ancestry. Variants appear in this table if p < 0.01 for at least one phenotype. 441
Common variants (MAF ≥ 0.01) in DCDC2, UNADJ and VIQADJ phenotypes. Effect size (p-value) for 513 dose of the rarer allele with adjustment for non-European ancestry. Variants appear in this table if p < 0.01 for at 514
Haplotype models in DCDC2, associated with SWE:VIQADJ. The left side shows 540 effect estimates are from six individual haplotype dosage models. The rarer haplotype in each 541 block is in bold. The final model on the right shows effect estimates when dose effects are 542
Targeted analysis of dyslexia-associated regions on chromosomes 6, 12 and 15 in large multigenerational cohorts
  • Preprint
  • File available

August 2023

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96 Reads

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2 Citations

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Nicola H. Chapman

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Patrick Navas

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Dyslexia is a common specific learning disability with a strong genetic basis that affects word reading and spelling. An increasing list of loci and genes have been implicated, but analyses to-date investigated only limited genomic variation within each locus with no confirmed pathogenic variants. In a collection of >2000 participants in families enrolled at three independent sites, we performed targeted capture and comprehensive sequencing of all exons and some regulatory elements of five candidate dyslexia risk genes ( DNAAF4 , CYP19A1 , DCDC2 , KIAA0319 and GRIN2B ) for which prior evidence of association exists from more than one sample. For each of six dyslexia-related phenotypes we used both individual-single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and aggregate testing of multiple SNPs to evaluate evidence for association. We detected no promoter alterations and few potentially deleterious variants in the coding exons, none of which showed evidence of association with any phenotype. All genes except DNAAF4 provided evidence of association, corrected for the number of genes, for multiple non-coding variants with one or more phenotypes. Results for a variant in the downstream region of CYP19A1 and a haplotype in DCDC2 yielded particularly strong statistical significance for association. This haplotype and another in DCDC2 affected performance of real word reading in opposite directions. In KIAA0319 , two missense variants annotated as tolerated/benign associated with poor performance on spelling. Ten non-coding SNPs likely affect transcription factor binding. Findings were similar regardless of whether phenotypes were adjusted for verbal IQ. Our findings from this large-scale sequencing study complement those from genome-wide association studies (GWAS), argue strongly against the causative involvement of large-effect coding variants in these five candidate genes, support an oligogenic etiology, and suggest a role of transcriptional regulation. Author Summary Family studies show that genes play a role in dyslexia and a small number of genomic regions have been implicated to date. However, it has proven difficult to identify the specific genetic variants in those regions that affect reading ability by using indirect measures of association with evenly spaced polymorphisms chosen without regard to likely function. Here, we use recent advances in DNA sequencing to examine more comprehensively the role of genetic variants in five previously nominated candidate dyslexia risk genes on several dyslexia-related traits. Our analysis of more than 2000 participants in families with dyslexia provides strong evidence for a contribution to dyslexia risk for the non-protein coding genetic variant rs9930506 in the CYP19A1 gene on chromosome 15 and excludes the DNAAF4 gene on the same chromosome. We identified other putative causal variants in genes DCDC2 and KIAA0319 on chromosome 6 and GRIN2B on chromosome 12. Further studies of these DNA variants, all of which were non-coding, may point to new biological pathways that affect susceptibility to dyslexia. These findings are important because they implicate regulatory variation in this complex trait that affects ability of individuals to effectively participate in our increasingly informatic world.

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Examples of incomplete cross-code integration.a
Changes in P-POMplexity means over time by spelling ability group (superior, average, and poor). Significant group differences are marked with an asterisk (*).
Changes in O-POMplexity means over time by spelling ability group (superior, average, and poor). Significant group differences are marked with an asterisk (*).
Changes in M-POMplexity means over time by spelling ability group (superior, average, and poor). Significant group differences are marked with an asterisk (*).
Derivational Morphology Bridges Phonology and Orthography: Insights Into the Development of Word-Specific Spellings by Superior, Average, and Poor Spellers

July 2020

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192 Reads

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19 Citations

Purpose Morphology, which is a bridge between phonology and orthography, plays an important role in the development of word-specific spellings. This study, which employed longitudinal sampling of typically developing students in Grades 3, 4, and 5, explored how the misspellings of words with derivational suffixes shed light on the interplay of phonological, orthographic, and morphological (POM) linguistic features as students learn to integrate POM features appropriately to generate correct spellings. Method Sixty typically developing Grade 3 students were tested using the Spelling subtest from the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test–Second Edition (Wechsler, 2001) and were divided into superior, average, and poor spellers. Students' spelling skill was then assessed using the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test–Second Edition annually for another 2 years. Misspelled derivations from these three testing sessions were analyzed for linguistic feature errors and error complexity/severity. Differences in the integration of POM features across spelling ability levels at Grades 3–5 were analyzed with Kruskal–Wallis analyses of variance. Results Longitudinal results demonstrated POM integration for the development of word-specific spellings involving derivational morphology was in its initial stages over Grades 3–5 and was influenced by spelling ability level. Information from a qualitative analysis revealed considerable variability in how students applied their POM knowledge to spell complex derivations. Conclusions Word-specific spellings draw on multiple linguistic codes—P, O, and M—and their interconnections. It involves more than an understanding of orthographic rules. Rather, accurate spelling develops through an increased understanding of the phoneme–grapheme relationships as facilitated by the identification of word parts (base + or − affixes) in written language. Educational and clinical implications are discussed.



The Self in Self-Regulated Writing of Fourth to Ninth Graders with Dysgraphia

February 2020

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86 Reads

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6 Citations

International Journal of School & Educational Psychology

Dysgraphia, a specific learning disability, impairs legible and automatic letter production by hand, which can interfere with written composing. The goal of the current study was not to investigate effective methods for teaching self-regulated writing to students with dysgraphia, but rather to investigate their self that is involved in their self-regulated writing. Students with dysgraphia in grades 4 to 9 (17 males; 3 females, M = 139.44 months, SD = 12.15) composed six personal narratives about themselves and their relationships with others. Five indicators of self/self-others, informed by Theory of Mind, were coded in the six personal narratives. They also completed normed measures of self-regulation of attention and of written composing. Correlations identified which coded indicators of self/self-others and which measures of attention regulation were significantly related to the same written composing measure to be used as predictors in multiple regressions. Results showed that coded quality of Text Organization (Self Schema in Personal Story) for “My Life Before the School Years” as first predictor AND either Focused or Switching Attention as second predictor jointly accounted for significant variance and each predictor explained unique variance in writing fluency (timed composing). Implications of findings for educational practice and future research are discussed.



Case Studies Comparing Learning Profiles and Response to Instruction in Autism Spectrum Disorder and Oral and Written Language Learning Disability at Transition to High School

April 2019

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96 Reads

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14 Citations

Topics in Language Disorders

This study investigated literacy learning in students with specific kinds of language challenges at a specific stage of schooling - transition to high school - when the language requirements of the curriculum can be especially challenging. For this exploratory research, a case study approach was adopted that compared 2 adolescent boys both with language learning problems but with 2 contrasting disabilities - autism spectrum disorder (ASD) versus oral and written language learning disability (OWL LD) - just before entry to ninth grade. Three research aims compared participants on (a) learning profiles assessed via a comprehensive psychoeducational assessment battery, (b) change in their learning profiles based on response to instruction to a computerized intervention, and (c) change in their personal narrative compositions and use of taught translation strategies collected during 6 lessons of the computerized intervention. Results indicated that participants demonstrated variable psychoeducational profiles and response to instruction that highlighted similar yet distinct patterns of strengths and weaknesses. Personal narrative writing samples showed that participants demonstrated distinct challenges, but only the participant with ASD showed no response to instruction and produced predominantly off-topic text. Results are discussed in reference to educational applications and future research design implications to understand the writing challenges experienced by children with ASD in reference to children with OWL LD or other specific learning disabilities.


Citations (93)


... Regarding the causes of DD, studies of families at risk for dyslexia have found the involvement of specific chromosomes (e.g., chromosomes 6, 12, and 15) whose alterations support a polygenic basis of dyslexia [6][7][8][9], although the role of environmental factors that exclude causative genes is also well-acknowledged [10]. Several theories hypothesize that genetic alterations cause functional anomalies in some brain areas and the impairment of various abilities, such as working memory [11], rapid naming [12], language [13], procedural learning [14], processing speed [15], selective attention [16], and executive in visual processing, with detrimental consequences in word processing, both within the parafovea and the fovea during fixation [29,30]. ...

Reference:

Telerehabilitation of Developmental Dyslexia: Critical Considerations on Intervention Methods and Their Effectiveness
Targeted analysis of dyslexia-associated regions on chromosomes 6, 12 and 15 in large multigenerational cohorts

... 이와 같은 작업기억과 읽기의 관계에 관한 관심은 읽기부진 집단의 작업기억 특성에 관한 관심 으로 이어졌다. Swanson 등은 일련의 연구에서 (Berninger & Swanson, 2018;Swanson & Howell, 2001;Swanson & Kong, 2018;Swanson & O'connor, 2009) 읽기부진 집단의 작업기 억 기능 제한을 밝혔다. 후속 연구들 또한 작업기억 모형 하위체계 각각에 있어 읽기부진 집단의 결함을 밝혀왔다 (Brandenburg et al., 2017;Chan & Wade-Woolley, 2018;Georgiou & Das, 2016;Swanson & Kong, 2018). ...

Role of Working Memory in the language learning mechanism by ear, mouth, eye and hand in individuals with and without Specific Learning Disabilities in written language
  • Citing Chapter
  • March 2018

... The impaired syntax may interfere with not only written expression during composing but also oral expression, listening comprehension, and/or reading comprehension. Research has shown that these three SLDs affecting different levels (units) of language Berninger & Wolf, 2016) have different genetic bases (Abbott, Raskind, Matsushita, Richards, Price, & Berninger, 2017), brain bases (e.g., Berninger et al., 2015;Richards et al., 2015), and instructional needs (Berninger & Wolf, 2016). Thus, in the current study the students with dysgraphia were carefully identified using evidence-based procedures for differential diagnosis of dysgraphia, dyslexia, and OWL LD (see methods). ...

Patterns of biomarkers for three phenotype profiles of persisting specific learning disabilities during middle childhood and early adolescence: A preliminary study

... La morfología derivativa está estrechamente ligada a la semántica. Además, se considera un puente entre la fonología y la ortografía (Bahr et al., 2020). La transparencia ortográfica del español podría impulsar estrategias de codificación de granularidad fina, pero retrasar la dependencia de granularidades significativas para la lectura automática de palabras y, por lo tanto, la aparición del efecto morfológico se manifiesta de forma tardía, hacia el sexto curso (Lázaro et al., 2018). ...

Derivational Morphology Bridges Phonology and Orthography: Insights Into the Development of Word-Specific Spellings by Superior, Average, and Poor Spellers

... Dimension 2 (Self-Efficacy of Writing Conventions) pertains to writing conventions, which refer to a set of generally accepted standards for conveying ideas in writing (Bruning, et al., 2013). The conventions may be grammar, vocabulary and mechanics (Fayol, Alamargot, & Berninger, 2012). ...

Translation of Thought to Written Text While Composing
  • Citing Book
  • May 2012

... A tanulási zavarral küzdő gyermekeknél a nagy változás az iskolába lépést követően jelenik meg, mert míg óvodás éveik alatt nem biztos, hogy kudarcokkal néztek szembe a gyermekek, most viszont azzal kell megküzdeniük, hogy vannak olyan feladatok, amelyeket nem képesek elvégezni vagy nem úgy, mint a társaik (Dunn et al. 2021). A diszlexiás gyermekek önértékelésére jellemző, hogy alacsonyabb, mint a tipikusan fejlődő gyermekeké, ami szintén megnehezíti a szocio-adaptív viselkedést, valamint növeli a stressz és a depresszió kockázatát (Karande és Venkataraman 2013). ...

The Self in Self-Regulated Writing of Fourth to Ninth Graders with Dysgraphia
  • Citing Article
  • February 2020

International Journal of School & Educational Psychology

... The authors view writing as a recursive problem-solving procedure and underscore the significance of rhetoric and self-regulation tactics for enhancing writing caliber. According to Berninger's (1996) argument, the writing process model proposed by Flower and Hayes (1980) is applicable only to proficient writers and does not account for the writing progression of inexperienced writers. The individual in question modified the writing framework proposed by Flower and Hayes (1980) Hayes and Nash (1996) categorized the empirical research on writing ideas, which primarily consisted of theoretical research, into two distinct groups: related studies and experimental studies. ...

Reading and Writing Acquisition: A Developmental Neuropsychological Perspective
  • Citing Book
  • July 2019

... Although we recognize that the role of a teacher is neither to diagnose dyslexia nor to categorize dyslexia as one set of difficulties (Snowling & Hulme, 2011), we do agree with researchers that believe teachers need to have an accurate understanding about dyslexia (Berninger, Nagy, Richards, & Raskind, 2008;Hudson et al., 2007;National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), 2000;Shaywitz, 2003;Wadlington, Elliot, & Kirylo, 2008). Teachers play an integral role in providing appropriate reading instruction, specifically for children who experience difficulty (Snow et al., 1998). ...

Developmental dyslexia: A developmental neurolinguistic approach
  • Citing Chapter
  • August 2008

... De manera similar ocurre con los estudiantes que poseen discapacidad específica como trastorno del espectro autista. Ellos presentan desafíos distintos y únicos en su aprendizaje de la escritura (Zajic et al., 2019). ...

Case Studies Comparing Learning Profiles and Response to Instruction in Autism Spectrum Disorder and Oral and Written Language Learning Disability at Transition to High School
  • Citing Article
  • April 2019

Topics in Language Disorders

... The contributions of general and specific word knowledge to spelling ability Spelling functions as the primary tool for the translation of meanings into new word forms. However, the process of interconnecting form with meaning entails the analysis of different linguistic units, or levels of granularity, from phonemes and graphemes to words (McMurray & McVeigh, 2016;Newman, 2010;Silliman et al., 2018) and beyond to syntactic and discourse levels. As Abbott et al. (2010) point out, "These levels are typically not related in a one-to-one fashion, but …must be integrated across levels of language for competent language usage" (p. ...

Language Bases of Spelling in Writing during Early and Middle Childhood: Grounding Applications to Struggling Writers in Typical Writing Development: Understanding the Needs of Writers across the Lifecourse