Vernon H. Gregg’s research while affiliated with Birkbeck, University of London and other places

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Publications (28)


Components of conscious awareness in a long‐term modality effect
  • Article

April 2011

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25 Reads

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20 Citations

British Journal of Psychology

Vernon H. Gregg

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John M. Gardiner

The advantage in long-term recognition memory of words vocalized at study over those read silently was investigated by requiring subjects to indicate when recognizing a word whether or not they could consciously recollect its prior occurrence. The advantage for vocalization occurred only for words which subjects indicated were accompanied by recollective experience, and the results were not affected by whether subjects vocalized the test words or read them silently. It is concluded that this modality effect, and possibly other similar ones, originate in episodic memory and not in a procedural or ‘quasimemory’ system. Differences between the present results and those obtained elsewhere using intentional learning instructions are discussed.


Factor Structure of Scores on the State Version of the Four Dimension Mood Scale

February 2009

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210 Reads

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20 Citations

Educational and Psychological Measurement

This study examines the factor structure of scores on the Four Dimension Mood Scale (4DMS) developed by Huelsman, Nemanick, and Munz in response to criticisms of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule. The results showed that the factor structure of 4DMS scores obtained with a sample of U.K. residents assessed for state affect corresponded closely to that obtained by Huelsman et al. with hospital employees in the United States who were assessed for trait affect. The four-factor model provided a reasonably good fit to the scores and fitted better than one-factor or two-factor models, thus favoring a four-dimension model of affect. It was concluded that the 4DMS is appropriate for use in the United Kingdom with comparable samples. The study identified differences in composition of the 4DMS and Thayer's Activation Deactivation Adjective Check List, especially in the Tiredness scale, and areas for further investigation of the 4DMS.


Recognition memory and awareness: A high-frequency advantage in the accuracy of knowing

May 2006

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45 Reads

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12 Citations

The well-established advantage of low-frequency words over high-frequency words in recognition memory has been found to occur in remembering and not knowing. Two experiments employed remember and know judgements, and divided attention to investigate the possibility of an effect of word frequency on know responses given appropriate study conditions. With undivided attention at study, the usual low-frequency advantage in the accuracy of remember responses, but no effect on know responses, was obtained. Under a demanding divided attention task at encoding, a high-frequency advantage in the accuracy of know responses was obtained. The results are discussed in relation to theories of knowing, particularly those incorporating perceptual and conceptual fluency.


Table 1 Mean Proportions of Responses and Standard Deviations for Fast and Slow Recognition as a Function of Size Congruence and Following Full Attention at Study Congruent Incongruent Unstudied 
Table 2 Mean Proportions of Responses and Standard Deviations for Fast and Slow Recognition as a Function of Voice Congruence and Following Full Attention at Study Congruent Incongruent Unstudied 
Table 3 Mean Proportions of Responses and Standard Deviations for Fast and Slow Recognition as a Function of Size Congruence and Following Divided Attention at Study Congruent Incongruent Unstudied 
Table 4 Mean Proportions of Responses and Standard Deviations for Fast and Slow Recognition as a Function of Voice Congruence and Following Divided Attention at Study Congruent Incongruent Unstudied 
Table 5 Mean A′ Estimates of Memory Strength for Remembering and for Knowing in Experiments 1–4 
Recognition memory and awareness: Occurrence of perceptual effects in remembering or in knowing depends on conscious resources at encoding, but not at retrieval
  • Article
  • Full-text available

April 2006

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122 Reads

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34 Citations

Memory & Cognition

We report four experiments in which a remember-know paradigm was combined with a response deadline procedure in order to assess memory awareness in fast, as compared with slow,recognition judgments. In the experiments, we also investigated the perceptual effects of study-test congruence, either for picture size or for speaker's voice, following either full or divided attention at study. These perceptual effects occurred in remembering with full attention and in knowing with divided attention, but they were uninfluenced by recognition speed, indicating that their occurrence in remembering or knowing depends more on conscious resources at encoding than on those at retrieval. The results have implications for theoretical accounts of remembering and knowing that assume that remembering is more consciously controlled and effortful, whereas knowing is more automatic and faster.

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Memory Awareness Following Speeded Compared with Unspeeded Picture Recognition

January 2005

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36 Reads

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24 Citations

Experimental Psychology

A remember-know paradigm was used to assess memory awareness following speeded and unspeeded yes/no picture recognition. The beneficial effects of picture size congruency at study and test occurred with speeded as well as with unspeeded recognition. In each case, they were associated with remembering, not with knowing, which remained invariant. Thus, size congruency effects were associated with remembering even when recognition occurred more automatically and hence may be more dependent on a relatively fast familiarity process. In a second experiment, speeded remember responses were compared with remember responses that followed speeded yes/no recognition. There was more remembering when it was the remember responses that were speeded, contrary to what might be expected if remembering reflects a relatively slow recollection process. These results have implications for the ability of dual-process models of recognition memory to account for memory awareness.


Caring for a relative with chronic fatigue syndrome: Difficulties, cognition and acceptance over time

April 2002

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25 Reads

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15 Citations

The Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health

The present study explored the difficulties experienced by carers of chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) sufferers, their cognitions, and their efforts to accept the illness. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 17 carers to study these issues, retrospectively, over three stages: before the diagnosis of CFS, shortly after the diagnosis, and at present. Surprisingly, the results suggested that carers, several of them absent from home during the day, felt that their lives were only minimally constrained by the illness. Nevertheless, all carers reported specific coping efforts to manage both the illness and their own distress, and indicated that they learned to accept the illness over time. However, acceptance appeared to be a form of resignation rather than a positive appreciation of the illness. In light of the uncertainties surrounding the origin of CFS and carers' apparent confusion, the results obtained in the present study are significant in that they increase our understanding of CFS carers' quality of life, their efforts to cope with the illness, and the physical and emotional help they may provide to the sufferer. Such information can be usefully employed in the increasing development of counselling interventions and instrumental support networks that involve both sufferers and their carers.


Impact of encoding depth on awareness of perceptual effects in recognition memory

May 2001

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35 Reads

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42 Citations

Memory & Cognition

Pictorial stimuli are more likely to be recognized if they are the same size, rather than a different size, at study and at test. This size congruency effect was replicated in two experiments in which the encoding variables were respectively undivided versus divided attention and level of processing. In terms of performance, these variables influenced recognition and did not influence size congruency effects. But in terms of awareness, measured by remember and know responses, these variables did influence size congruency effects. With undivided attention and with a deep level of processing, size congruency effects occurred only in remembering. With divided attention and with a shallow level of processing, size congruency effects occurred only in knowing. The results show that effects that occur in remembering may also occur independently in knowing. They support theories in which remembering and knowing reflect different memory processes or systems. They do not support the theory that remembering and knowing reflect differences in trace strength.


Coping and illness cognitions: chronic fatigue syndrome

April 2001

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52 Reads

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47 Citations

Clinical Psychology Review

The chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is described, and research on coping with this illness reviewed and analysed. CFS is a severely disabling illness of unknown etiology, which has occurred in epidemic forms all over the world. However, the number of sufferers has dramatically increased over previous years. The heterogeneous symptomatology of CFS was reviewed, and diagnostic criteria were discussed. The difficulty in establishing causality was emphasized. An interaction of factors appears most likely to be associated with illness onset and maintenance. As the mediating factor could be sufferers' coping behavior, the existing coping literature was reviewed. There might be an association between coping and physical and psychological well-being. Finally, recommendations are made for longitudinal research on coping and coping effectiveness, and for the development of therapeutic interventions.


Coping and illness cognitions

March 2001

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36 Reads

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31 Citations

Clinical Psychology Review

The chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is described, and research on coping with this illness reviewed and analysed. CFS is a severely disabling illness of unknown etiology, which has occurred in epidemic forms all over the world. However, the number of sufferers has dramatically increased over previous years. The heterogeneous symptomatology of CFS was reviewed, and diagnostic criteria were discussed. The difficulty in establishing causality was emphasized. An interaction of factors appears most likely to be associated with illness onset and maintenance. As the mediating factor could be sufferers' coping behavior, the existing coping literature was reviewed. There might be an association between coping and physical and psychological well-being. Finally, recommendations are made for longitudinal research on coping and coping effectiveness, and for the development of therapeutic interventions.


Chronic fatigue syndrome: Illness attributions and perceptions of control

January 1998

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15 Reads

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5 Citations

The chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is a chronic illness of uncertain aetiology and prognosis. Its origin and chronicity could reflect an interaction of biological, social, and psychological factors. The present study investigated sufferers' beliefs about the origin of the illness and their perceptions of control over its course. Twenty interviews with sufferers were transcribed and analysed qualitatively. All sufferers believed that CFS was caused by a viral infection and immune dysfunction, but some also acknowledged a possible role of stress. Those sufferers who attributed CFS to purely organic causes appeared to have little personal control, but attributed control to health professionals and God. On the other hand, those who acknowledged a possible role of stress reported efforts to change their life-styles. The study suggests a strong relationship between sufferers' illness beliefs and behaviour. This is important in the management of the illness, and in the interaction between patients and health professionals.


Citations (24)


... Research utilising the Medical Outcomes Study Short Form-36 Health Survey (SF-36;Ware, Snow, Kosinski, & Gandek, 1993) has found that those with CFS display significantly lower scores on all ''physical'' subscales compared with healthy and other illness groups, indicating marked disability and reduced physical functioning (Buchwald et al., 1996;Herrell et al., 2002;Taillefer et al., 2002). Those with CFS are also confronted with a range of other difficulties including fluctuations in fatigue and symptom severity, uncertainty regarding illness duration and prognosis, and scepticism and intolerance from health professionals and loved ones (Anderson & Ferrans, 1997;Ax, Gregg & Jones, 1998;Herrell et al., 2002). These difficulties and frustrations can lead to increased psychological distress, life dissatisfaction, and in some cases psychological morbidity (Antoni et al., 1994;Rakib et al., 2005;Taillefer et al., 2002). ...

Reference:

Health-related quality of life in chronic fatigue syndrome: Predictors of physical functioning and psychological distress
Chronic fatigue syndrome: Illness attributions and perceptions of control
  • Citing Article
  • January 1998

... Briefly, when testing memory for individual items with humans, sometimes the participants are asked to evaluate if they can recollect qualitative details of an experience (i.e., remember) or 185 RETHINKING EPISODIC MEMORY merely have a sense of familiarity without these richer details (i.e., knowing). In these tasks, participants are given the option of responding "remember," "know," or "new" for each recognition item (Dudukovic & Knowlton, 2006;Gardiner, 2001;Java, Gregg, & Gardiner, 1997;Migo, Mayes, & Montaldi, 2012;Tulving, 1985). To date, this approach to studying memory has been used in hundreds of studies. ...

What do people actually remember (and know) in ''remember/know'' experiments?
  • Citing Article
  • June 1997

European Journal of Cognitive Psychology

... The current results revealed the expected better recall of silently read items than of produced items on the first serial positions and the reverse pattern on the last serial positions. This interaction between the production effect and serial position nicely reproduced results previously observed with a within-participant design in which the same participants took part in the silent and the aloud conditions Engle et al., 1989;Engle & Roberts, 1982;Greene, 1985;Greene & Crowder, 1986;Gregg & Gardiner, 1984;Grenfell-Essam et al., 2017;Murray et al., 1974;Watkins et al., 1974). In this context, the comparison with the third experiment of see Figure 2) is of particular interest. ...

Phonological Similarity and Enhanced Auditory Recency in Longer-Term Free Recall
  • Citing Article
  • February 1984

The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A

... First, for high arousal items, we used the adjectives with higher factor loadings in the PANAS (López-Gómez et al., 2015). Also, based on the literature reviewed, we introduced further affective experiences that are not included in the PANAS, such as 'vigorous', 'lively', and 'energetic' for the high positive affect dimension (Cohen et al., 2003;Gregg & Shepherd, 2009;Matthews et al., 1990;Norcross et al., 1984), or 'anxious' and 'uptight' for the high negative affect dimension (Cohen et al., 2003;Fernández et al., 2002). ...

Factor Structure of Scores on the State Version of the Four Dimension Mood Scale
  • Citing Article
  • February 2009

Educational and Psychological Measurement

... Maar stress, voornamelijk fysieke stress, kan er ook voor zorgen dat de symptomen die er al zijn zullen verslechteren. Gesuggereerd wordt dat het ineffectief omgaan met stress vóór het ontstaan van de ziekte, geassocieerd is met het ontstaan van CVS en dat het ineffectief omgaan met de fysieke en emotionele consequenties van de ziekte, geassocieerd is met het chronisch worden van de aandoening (Ax, e.a., 2001). De genoemde oorzaken brengen vervelende gevolgen met zich mee. ...

Coping and illness cognitions
  • Citing Article
  • March 2001

Clinical Psychology Review

... Irrespective of the type of relaxation technique employed, the effects are quite similar in terms of their stress-reducing properties (Brown et al., 2007;Rausch, Gramling, & Auerbach 2006;Travis et al., 2009) and benefits to mood and cognition (Miller, Fletcher, & Kabat-Zinn, 1995;Nava, Landau, Brody, Linder, & Schächinger, 2004). Indeed, in the cognitive domain, relaxation training has resulted in significant improvements in attention (Grosschalk & Greg, 1996), visuospatial processing (Kozhevnikov, Louchakova, Josipovic, & Motes, 2009), and memory capacity (Subramanya & Telles, 2009). Furthermore, relaxation techniques have facilitated significant increases in multiple measures of intelligence (Cranson et al., 1991), greater flexibility in concept learning (Dillbeck, 1982;Grosschalk & Greg, 1996), along with improved problem solving ability across age groups from young children to the elderly (Krampen, 1997). ...

Relaxation and cognitive processing during memory retrieval
  • Citing Article
  • October 1996

Contemporary Hypnosis

... Although we believe that the argument that familiarity is predominantly a weak form of memory is based on methodologically flawed observations, there is perhaps some evidence that familiarity distinguishes itself from recollection in terms of factors such as its sensitivity to levels of processing, divided attention, and the perceptual characteristics of the information being processed (for original work, see Gardiner & Parkin, 1990;Gregg & Gardiner, 1994;Rajaram, 1993;Toth, 1996;Wagner et al., 1997;Yonelinas, 2001; for a review, see Yonelinas, 2002). Other findings indicate that as with recollection, familiarity is sensitive to the conceptual processing of stimuli (see Yonelinas, 2002). ...

Recognition memory and awareness: A large effect of study-test modalities on "know" responses folowing a highly perceptual orienting task.
  • Citing Article
  • June 1994

European Journal of Cognitive Psychology

... Existen estudios que contradicen los resultados previamente mencionados y postulan a otras variables como las más influyentes en tareas de reconocimiento y decisión léxica. Gardiner et al. (1988) sugieren, por su parte, que la familiaridad incide en mayor medida que la frecuencia léxica en tareas de reconocimiento. ...

Word Frequency and Generation Effects

Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition

... Moreover, our analyses were performed on hit minus false alarm measures of discrimination for overall recognition, recollection and familiarity separately. However, this assumes a threshold model of discrimination and is probably invalid for familiarity estimates at least (Gardiner & Gregg, 1997;Yonelinas, 2001). An additional analysis using d′ suggested the same pattern of result (See Table 4). ...

Recognition memory with little or no remembering: Implications for a detection model
  • Citing Article
  • December 1997

Psychonomic Bulletin & Review