Thomas J. Holt's research while affiliated with Queensland University of Technology and other places
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Publications (216)
Sextortion is a form of image‐based sexual abuse in which an offender threatens to distribute sexually explicit images, videos, or information to gain victim compliance. In some sextortion incidents involving minor children, offenders are adult strangers who coerce victims into self‐producing child sexually abusive materials (CSAM). Despite the gro...
Social engineering, or the use of deception to circumvent information security measures, has become a significant concern for organizations. Many organizations have implemented information security policies to mitigate the risks posed by social engineering attacks. This study uses a grounded theory-based approach to examine qualitative interviews w...
Research has shown that psychosocial and behavioral factors are associated with engagement in a range of deviant behaviors across offline settings. To date, however, very little research has explored the impact of these factors in online contexts. This article addresses this gap by examining the psychosocial and behavioral factors associated with c...
Romance fraud occurs when an offender uses the guise of a genuine relationship to defraud an individual for financial gain. Known statistics indicate that millions are lost each year to this form of fraud. However, the potential for romance fraud victims to also experience identity crime as a consequence of their interactions and communications wit...
This article examines the network structure, criminal cooperation, and external interactions of cybercriminal networks. Its contribution is empirical and inductive. The core of this study involved carrying out 10 case analyses on closed cybercrime investigations-all with financial motivations on the part of the offenders-in the UK and beyond. Each...
Online support communities are gaining attention among child-attracted persons (CAPs). Though research has largely focused on the negative consequences these environments create for potential offending, they may also provide a beneficial alternative to more formal treatment settings. To assess the utility for clinical and therapeutic purposes, this...
The rapid growth in the availability of information and communications technologies has also expanded opportunities to commit cybercrime. Law enforcement officers are often the first responders to such incidents. Internationally, research has revealed how police preparedness to respond to cybercrime is mediated by organizational policies and proced...
Juvenile populations face a substantial risk of emotional, physical, and psychological harm as a result of bullying and cyberbullying experiences. As a result, there is a need to assess the situational and individual factors contributing to the risk of bullying victimization. There is, however, little research examining cyberbullying victimization...
This review article highlights the current state of cybercrime scholarship published by criminologists in the areas of computer hacking, malware, fraud, and various economically motivated offenses. Areas for future study are identified and explored in detail.
The current study examines recommendations for addressing organizational members who fall prey to social engineering as a matter of organizational policy through a qualitative analysis of interviews with organizational IT security administrators, IT security auditors, and social engineers. The results of this analysis indicate that participants had...
This work introduces the special edited issue on the human factor in cybercrime research.
The rise of the Internet has dramatically increased the degree to which youth may be exposed to online hate content, and simplified the process of sharing this content with others. Viewing messages that contain hate speech or language vilifying others can increase an individual’s risk of radicalization to extremist views and the acceptance of viole...
This study uses open source, public information to examine nation-state and non-nation-state ideologically motivated cyberattacks performed against US targets from 1998 to 2018. We created the Extremist Cyber Crime Database (ECCD) that includes scheme, offender and target codebooks to address gaps in existing research and better inform policymakers...
The development of online technologies in recent decades has led to the proliferation of the distribution, consumption, and sale of child sexual abuse material (CSAM) online. This trend has arguably also contributed to the sexual abuse of children offline. In this context, many organizations, including financial institutions and police agencies, ha...
Advancements in information technology are sources of both opportunity and vulnerability for citizens. Previous research indicates that there are significant challenges for police in investigating cybercrime, that community expectations about police responses are based largely on media representations, and that victims experience high levels of fru...
Criminologists have frequently debated whether offenders are specialists, in that they consistently perform either one offense or similar offenses, or versatile by performing any crime based on opportunities and situational provocations. Such foundational research has yet to be developed regarding cybercrimes, or offenses enabled by computer techno...
Concern over juvenile sexting behaviors has increased substantially over the last decade, leading to criminological inquiries of the correlates of sexting. Evidence suggests that sexting behavior is associated with one's level of self-control, such that individuals with low self-control are unable to constrain themselves from acting on opportunitie...
Digital forensic evidence has become an essential component of criminal investigations across the United States. The amplified integration of technology with society, however, continues to present new challenges for law enforcement officers. This issue is evident in one of the key responsibilities of police agencies involves the enforcement of traf...
The development of online technologies in recent decades has facilitated the distribution and consumption of child sexual abuse material (CSAM) over the internet, which also led to the emergence of CSAM on the darknet-the segment of the internet hidden from the general public. Using data obtained from interviews with online investigators, this stud...
This volume highlights the central role of the human factor in cybercrime and the need to develop a more interdisciplinary research agenda to understand better the constant evolution of online harms and craft more effective responses. The term “human factor” is understood very broadly and encompasses individual, institutional, and societal dimensio...
Romance fraud occurs when offenders use the guise of a genuine relationship to defraud a victim, typically via online communications. Research has focused on the general structure of romance frauds, but few scholars have considered the potential link between victimization and specific narratives employed by offenders. This article explores the repo...
This review synthesises empirical studies from the past decade investigating child sexual abuse material (CSAM) production and distribution to gain insight into crime commission processes involved in these crimes. The findings highlight overlaps in risk factors for child sexual abuse and CSAM production and distribution, and possible unique risk fa...
This review synthesises empirical studies from the past decade investigating child sexual abuse material (CSAM) production and distribution to gain insight into crime commission processes involved in these crimes. The findings highlight overlaps in risk factors for child sexual abuse and CSAM production and distribution, and possible unique risk fa...
This edited book promotes and facilitates cybercrime research by providing a cutting-edge collection of perspectives on the critical usage of online data across platforms, as well as the implementation of both traditional and innovative analysis methods. The accessibility, variety and wealth of data available online presents substantial opportuniti...
Criminological inquiry consistently identifies a gender difference in offending rates, which are also evident among certain forms of cybercrime. The gender difference in cybercrime offending is particularly large within computer hacking, though few have specifically addressed this issue through applications of criminological theory. The current stu...
Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime argues individuals with low self-control are more likely to engage in crime on and off-line. There is less research considering the role of opportunity, as low self-control should increase individuals’ willingness to act on opportunities to offend. The importance of opportunity is distinct for cyber...
Criminological inquiry has identified a range of risk factors associated with juvenile delinquency. However, little research has assessed juvenile computer hacking, despite the substantial harm and opportunities for delinquent behavior online. Therefore, understanding the applicability of criminological risk factors among a cross-national sample of...
Incels, a portmanteau of the term involuntary celibates, operate in online communities to discuss difficulties in attaining sexual relationships. Past reports have found that multiple elements of the incel culture are misogynistic and favorable towards violence. Further, several violent incidents have been linked to this community, which suggests t...
The rise of technology has made it possible for individuals to communicate with people around the world in real time through text, video, and audio files. The quantity and quality of this information creates unique opportunities for researchers to examine crime and deviance occurring on- or off-line. There is, however, a lack of agreement among sch...
Past research has considered the ways in which vendors and consumers of illicit goods adapt to various formal and informal threats and manage risk in online environments. However, this topic is virtually unexplored in the context of contract-based violence. Using a sample of 24 advertisements posted on the Open and Dark web, this study utilizes a q...
Technology has dramatically simplified the process of engaging in a variety of crimes, particularly the distribution of child exploitation materials, or CEM. The ability to share photos and video across the globe through high speed Internet connections and mobile devices has made it easy to access CEM. At the same time, technology has complicated t...
The significant economic and emotional consequences of online fraud have not been equally matched by the policing response to these offenses. This paper examines constables’ and sergeants’ perceived preparation to respond to online fraud through a quantitative analyses of survey data collected from over 1300 officers from 35 local police agencies a...
Research on delinquency reduction often highlights the importance of identifying and sanctioning antisocial and illegal activities so as to reduce the likelihood of future offending. The rise of digital technology complicates the process of detecting cybercrimes and technology enabled offenses, as individuals can use devices from anywhere to engage...
This study provides a partial test of the relationship between actor motivations and target suitability using a routine activity framework to understand a form of cybercrime called web defacements. Specifically, the relationships between the visibility, inertia, value, and accessibility of the target in online spaces relative to the unique nonmonet...
Over the last decade, there has been an increased focus among researchers on the role of the Internet among actors and groups across the political and ideological spectrum. There has been particular emphasis on the ways that far-right extremists utilize forums and social media to express ideological beliefs through sites affiliated with real-world...
This Major Reference Work synthesizes the global knowledge on cybercrime from the leading international criminologists and scholars across the social sciences. The constant evolution of technology and our relationship to devices and their misuse creates a complex challenge requiring interdisciplinary knowledge and exploration. This work addresses t...
This study focuses on the organization practices of networks of cybercriminals engaged in serious financial offenses, through a qualitative analysis of the Best and Luckenbill’s sociological framework. The study utilized data collected regarding 18 separate criminals investigations from the Netherlands. The results demonstrate that the participants...
Purpose
Cybercrime is the greatest threat facing law enforcement agencies in England and Wales. Although these crimes are transnational by nature, the burden of response has been placed on line officers. Not all officers, however, believe they are capable of responding to calls involving cybercrime. The current study, using latent class analysis (L...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine the extent to which line officers in police agencies can identify digital evidence at crime scenes, also known as the binary artifacts stored on computers, mobile devices, tablets and the internet, through an analysis of survey responses of line staff in a Midwestern state police agency.
Design/metho...
This chapter examines the use of targeted warnings and cautions by police (i.e. cease-and-desist messaging) that aim to deter potential offenders from future offending. These interventions rely on rational choice and labelling theories of crime. This chapter examines the results of studies that evaluate such interventions for offline crimes. Overal...
This chapter investigates the use of educational workshops in preventing crime. This type of intervention brings together groups of individuals deemed at risk of offending to educate them about the consequences of crime, or to promote positive behaviours and skills that reduce the likelihood of committing crime. Though educational workshops vary wi...
The book begins with an introductory chapter that sets the scene: providing an overview of the core principles associated with crime prevention targeting that will be drawn upon throughout. It chronicles the unique aspects of offending within digital contexts, and in particular, explicates offending lifecycles, and flags significant points of diver...
This chapter draws together the key empirical strands that have emerged throughout the preceding chapters and explicates the practical dimensions of this work. It acknowledges first that there has been very little research evaluating the effects of crime prevention initiatives on cybercrime. It then outlines ways in which this gap can be addressed...
This chapter investigates a series of interventions that fall under the banner of restorative justice procedures. These procedures offer an informal alternative to formal court processes and typically involve bringing the offender and the victim together to discuss the harm caused, as well as measures to remediate the harm and assist the offender t...
This chapter examines a broad range of techniques known as situational crime prevention (SCP). This form of intervention takes cues from a host of theoretical perspectives and involves the design and manipulation of the environment to make offenders’ decisions to become involved in crime less attractive. The use of SCP is widespread in traditional...
This chapter examines the programs and strategies associated with positive diversions. Positive diversions redirect individuals towards prosocial behaviours and peer influences and focus on rehabilitation rather than punitive actions. This chapter reviews the evidence for such interventions in reducing offline crime, concluding that the findings ar...
This chapter explores universal communication strategies: mass media messages that aim to deter people from committing crimes. These interventions are underpinned by rational choice theories of crime, and typically attempt to alter individuals’ perceptions of the risks and rewards of offending. Mass media communications target a wide audience and h...
This chapter examines interventions that can be broadly categorised as mentoring. Mentoring is underpinned by a philosophy that promotes supportive interpersonal relationships that offer guidance to young people throughout their social-emotional, cognitive, and identity development. This chapter chronicles the popularity of mentoring as being one o...
This book articulates how crime prevention research and practice can be reimagined for an increasingly digital world. This ground-breaking work explores how criminology can apply longstanding, traditional crime prevention techniques to the digital realm. It provides an overview of the key principles, concepts and research literature associated with...
Criminological research has demonstrated the significant relationship between deviant peer associations, a lack of self-control, and individual delinquency. These relationships also account for involvement in cybercrime, though these results are based largely on adult samples. There is less research considering juvenile offending online, particular...
Minimal research has considered the extent to which pedophile social support forum users disclose physical relationships with minors in the course of their posts. As these forums cater to those who express sexual interests in minors, the users may be at higher risk for contact offenses and require unique treatment and supervision. To address this g...
Over the last few years the market for distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks has changed from a pay-per-attack model executed by botnets, to a subscription service of booters and stressers where “subscribers” launch their own attacks through a web-based front end. The DDoS attack strength of booters and stressers has significantly increased...
The advancement of the Internet and digital technology has enabled individuals to commit crimes affecting both virtual and real targets at will. Criminological scholarship related to cybercrime and technology-enabled offending has primarily focused on offenders and victims, calling to question how police agencies effectively respond to these incide...
The South Australian Digital Youth Survey (DYS) is a world-first longitudinal project exploring how adolescents use digital technology and how this changes over the course of adolescence. The project examines the links between how adolescents use technology and pathways into cyber risk-taking. In studying these links, this project seeks to identify...
Research has demonstrated that hacker subculture – like many other tech-oriented communities – is disproportionately composed of men. While prior attempts have been made to explain this disparity, few, if any, explore the role of subculture in this gendered divide. Drawing from feminist theories, subcultural theory, and cultural criminology, this t...
The development of the Darknet as a parallel network to the Web in the 21st century has facilitated illegal trafficking in small arms, as defined by the United Nations. The authors have used investigative research methodologies to observe six weapon sale sites on the Darknet over a six-month period to identify sellers of firearms, the type and cali...
Although recent years have seen a great increase in the study of hate crime and terrorism, there is limited research to date that explores connections between hate crime and terrorism. This study uses a qualitative case-study method to explore the competing criminological theories of social learning and social control to investigate their utility i...
This study explores the utility of a sociological model of social organization developed by Best and Luckenbill (1994) to classify the radicalization processes of terrorists (i.e., extremist perpetrators who engaged in ideologically motivated acts of violence) who are usually categorized as loner or lone wolf attackers. There are several organizati...
The ubiquity of the Internet and computer technology has enabled individuals to engage in bullying, threats, and harassing communications online. Limited research has found that local line officers may not view these offenses as serious compared to real world crimes despite their negative physical and emotional impact on victims. The perceptions of...
Over the last two decades, there has been a massive increase in research examining terror and extremist-related violence. Few have considered the extent to which these same groups may engage in attacks against digital infrastructure and the Internet, whether through hacking or other methods. The absence of empirical evidence calls to question the n...
Abstract In the computer science field coordinated vulnerability disclosure is a well-known practice for finding flaws in IT-systems and patching them. In this practice, a white-hat hacker who finds a vulnerability in an IT-system reports that vulnerability to the system’s owner. The owner will then resolve the problem, after which the vulnerabilit...
Research examining the illicit online market for cybercrime services operating via web forums, such as malicious software, personal information, and hacking tools, has greatly improved our understanding of the practices of buyers and sellers, and the social forces that structure actor behavior. The majority of these studies are based on open market...
Recent research demonstrates that those with low self-control have an increased risk of victimization due to involvement in routine activities that place them in close proximity to motivated offenders and decrease their willingness to utilize appropriate guardianship factors. This relationship is significant in predicting physical forms of victimiz...
This article presents a systematic linguistic approach to mapping gender differences in the formulation and practice of right-wing ideology. We conducted a set of content-and text-analytical analyses on a 52,760 words corpus from a female-only subforum, dubbed LOTIES (Ladies of the Invisible Empire), compared with a matching corpus of 1.793 million...
Cybercrimes, or offenses enabled by technology, affect computer systems and people and prove difficult to pursue through traditional criminal justice strategies due to jurisdictional challenges and legal hurdles. As a result, corporations and industry have begun to play a role in mitigating various forms of cybercrime. This article examines what co...
Recent arrests and takedowns of Stressers have shown Stressers are very profitable and used by thousands of individuals to launch denial of service attacks. For example, the Titanium Stresser was used to launch more than 1.7 million DDoS attacks, and the operator profited almost $400k in a 2 year period. But there has been very little research into...
This study investigates the predictors of four types of cybercrime victimization/experiences: online harassment, hacking, identity theft, and receiving nude photos or explicit content. The effects of victimization opportunity and low self-control are examined as the primary independent variables in logistic regression analyses of data collected fro...
Research on cybercrime offending and victimization has increased dramatically over the past two decades, though qualitative scholarship on more technical offenses such as computer misuse have not kept pace with this broader trend. The aim of this research is to identify potential best practices for researchers considering qualitative interviews as...
Research on radicalization to accept extremist ideologies has expanded dramatically over the last decade, particularly attempts to theorize pathways to violence. These models are complex, and contain aspects of key criminological frameworks including social learning and social control theories. At the same time, they do reconcile the inherent diffe...
Over the past several decades, criminological scholarship has increasingly focused on the problem of cybercrime including technology-enabled offending. Theoretical developments that account for these offences have not grown in tandem, leading to questions as to the nature of cybercriminality relative to traditional forms of offending. Recently, Gol...
Citations
... Past research has identified a number of roles and tasks in financially-motivated cybercriminal networks (Bulanova-Hristova et al. 2016;Kruisbergen et al. 2019;Leukfeldt, Kleemans, and Stol 2017a, 2017b, 2017cLoggen and Leukfeldt 2022;Lusthaus et al. 2023). Generally speaking, these networks consist of three different layers: core members, professional and recruited facilitators, and money mules. ...
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... Much of it is hidden from official statistics, as a large proportion of stalking incidents go unreported (Jerath et al, 2022a). Victims who do report often have negative experiences because the police lack a nuanced understanding of stalking behaviour (Holt et al., 2019). The severity of stalking is also generally not appreciated by wider society (McKeon, McEwan, and Luebbers, 2015). ...
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... Another challenge is that these agencies may not distinguish ideologically motivated bias crimes committed by extremists from nonextremist hate crimes. Similarly, ideologically motivated cybercrimes in the United States are commonly prosecuted under the same laws as nonpolitical cybercrimes (i.e., statutes on computer hacking and routine cybercrimes) (Holt et al. 2023). There are similar challenges in studying extremist financial crimes, as they are not systematically documented and identified as such on either the federal or state levels. ...
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... Social media has a positive impact, including the ease of accessing information, making friends, keeping contact with people, branding, and selling (Adiyanti et al., 2020). On the other hand, social media also has negative impacts, such as hate speech, spread of false news (hoax), and social media addiction leading to cyberbullying (Holt et al., 2018;Syahid et al., 2021). ...
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... Notwithstanding the highlighted challenges, police, and cyberspace researchers such as Aremu [19], Broadhurst [20], Choo [21], and Jaishankar [22] should note that cyberspace has emerged as the cosmopolitan frontier of information age policing (See Sampson [23]). Now, cybercrime has transformed into a growing social and financial problem [24]. ...
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... Some studies suggest that actively seeking and engaging with extremist content online is associated with higher risk of VR (8, 22,25). Although online interactions with strangers have been associated with higher risk of psychological distress (17,41), the extent to which interactions with known and unknown people around political or current issues are associated, if at all, with support for VR has yet to be explored (23). ...
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... During CSAM investigations, law enforcement personnel often encounter disturbing and explicit content graphically depicting child sexual abuse that not only transgress ethical norms but also portray distressing acts committed against child victims. The content of CSAM encountered by investigators can vary widely, encompassing images and video