Terry A. Beehr’s research while affiliated with Central Michigan University and other places

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Publications (229)


Results from the confirmatory factor analysis of the Bern Dysfunctional Social Support Scale (BDSSS)
Note. NTotal Sample = 468: NSubsample 1 = 234, NSubsample 2 = 234; Standardized factor loadings (first line: total sample, second line: subsamples 1 and 2); Missing values are estimated using FIML (full information maximum likelihood) procedure; Fit statistics for the total sample: χ²(16) = 71.13, p < .001, CFI = .98, TLI = .95, RMSEA = .086, 90% CI [.066, .107]; for the subsamples (one analysis with subsamples 1 and 2 as subgroups): χ²(32) = 115.18, p < .001, CFI = .96, TLI = .92, RMSEA = .075, 90% CI [.060, .090]
Dysfunctional Social Support: Delivering Social Support at Work in an Unappreciative Way
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January 2025

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89 Reads

Occupational Health Science

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Self-esteem, both personal and social, constitutes a core concern for many people. Accordingly, Stress-as-Offense-to-Self theory focuses on threats, as well as boosts, to the self as important topics in occupational health science. Workplace social support is well established as a resource that signals acceptance and appreciation. At the same time, however, social support, notably support actually received, as opposed to perceived support availability, has been shown to have the potential to “backfire” and act as a stressor rather than a resource. The current study emphasizes the potential of social support to constitute a threat to the self if not delivered appropriately, that is, if it contains derogatory messages, even minor ones. The “Bern Dysfunctional Social Support Scale” (BDSSS) focuses on such threats entailed in supportive attempts, focusing on provider behavior rather than recipient reactions and covering a broader range of (mostly subtle) derogatory behaviors than previously existing measures. In a cross-sectional study of 468 Swiss employees, it was associated with strain and attitudes in a way that characterizes it as a stressor. Effects were not strong, but dysfunctional support explained variance over and above demographic characteristics, neuroticism, classical social stressors, task stressors, and functional social support, as well as the outcome variables from a previous wave of measurement. The BDSSS therefore constitutes a valuable complement to existing measures. Although further research on this issue is needed, results underscore the need to sensitize employees and supervisors about pitfalls of support that is well intended but delivered in a potentially offending way.

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Too much information! When job resources become job demands, producing a curvilinear relationship between informational social support and creativity

October 2024

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17 Reads


A Historical Review of the Prevalence of Job Stress Theories

September 2024

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106 Reads

Psychological Reports

Job stress theories have been developed and refined to better understand employee wellbeing. Now that the field is maturing, it is appropriate to review the theoretical trends and developments for future research and practical guidance. The current paper provides a historical review, with both objective (i.e., counts of published theories) and subjective evaluation of job stress theory. In Study 1, two trained raters coded theories used in job stress journals. The job demand-control (-support; JDCS) model was initially well-represented, but has been superseded more recently by theories that focus on multiple resources (e.g., the job demand-resource - JDR - model). Among non-job stress theories, motivation and affective theories have been well-represented within job stress research. Study 2 expanded the results of Study 1 through review of two international applied psychology journals with additional coding categories. Specifically, we identified empirical support for theories and researcher characteristics (i.e., national and professional affiliation). The JDCS model had the least full support according to a vote counting method, and resource models (e.g., JDR) the most. Germany and the Netherlands were the most represented locations, with the United States having the most international collaborations. Psychology and management were the most represented affiliations.


When experiencing nice interactions at work: Good sleep quality via well-being

March 2024

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27 Reads

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4 Citations

Stress and Health

Based on the Work–Home Resources Model and Conservation of Resources Theory, we develop dual mechanisms by which nice interactions (patients' compliments and coworkers' informational support) predict sleep quality. Specifically, we expect these nice interactions to help individuals conserve their personal energy in the form of less cognitive depletion (a cognitive process) and diminished physical fatigue (a physical process). Further, we propose employees utilise their energy resources to experience better sleep quality. To test the proposed model, we utilised an experience‐sampling method by recruiting 223 female nurses working in a regional university hospital in South Korea. Specifically, we measured nice interactions and personal resources at 3 PM on Day t and sleep quality at 5–6 AM on Day t + 1, and we administered the questionnaire for 10 consecutive days. Overall, after removing 79 invalid observations (not completing questionnaire in a timely manner), we had a final total of two‐wave 1997 daily observations from 223 nurses. Receiving more compliments from patients and more information from coworkers positively affects nurses' cognitive energy (less cognitive depletion) and physical energy (less physical fatigue), which predicts better sleep quality. Finally, results supported indirect effects of these nice interactions on sleep quality via cognitive and physical processes.



Are my wife's recovery activities related to my subsequent recovery activities at work?

February 2024

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18 Reads

Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being

We proposed a model where a male employee's wife's engagement in recovery activities results in the husband's own enactment of recovery activities while in the workplace, via emotional contagion, based on the COR theory and broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. We expected wives may experience positive emotions after engaging in social interactions, which has a contagion effect on husbands' positive emotions. Further, husbands were expected to leverage their positive emotions to engage in future recovery activities (better lunch nap and meal quality while at work). Lastly, we examined whether power imbalance in the married couple has a moderating effect on emotional contagion processes. To test our model, we used an experience-sampling method in which 110 dyads completed daily diary questionnaires for 8 consecutive days (N = 768, after removing 112 invalid observations). As expected, wives' social interactions are linked to husbands' positive emotions via wives' positive emotions. Further, husbands' positive emotions predict the quality of two workplace recovery activities (lunch naps and meals). Finally, power imbalance moderates the association between wives' (donors) emotions and husbands' (recipients) emotions such that the crossover of emotions is stronger when wives (donors) have relatively more power than when they have less.



Incivility organizational norms, incivility to coworkers and emotional exhaustion via supervisors' incivility: an intervention through changing organizational policies

January 2024

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79 Reads

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7 Citations

Purpose The purpose of the current research is to examine the crucial role of employees' perception of an incivility norm in predicting supervisors' incivility behaviors, which in turn, results in employees enacting incivility toward their coworkers and employees' emotional exhaustion. Design/methodology/approach In Study 1, an experience sampling method (a daily-diary approach) in which 143 male participants from several construction sites completed a total of 1,144 questionnaires was used . In Study 2, cross-sectional data from 156 male employees working in a manufacturing organization was collected. In Study 3, a quasi-experiment was conducted in which 33 and 36 employees were assigned to the intervention and control groups, respectively. Findings In Studies 1 and 2, it was revealed that employees are likely to experience their supervisor’s incivility behaviors when perceiving such incivility behaviors are more acceptable within the organization (incivility norm). Further, once employees experience incivility from their supervisor, they are more likely to enact incivility toward their coworkers and experience emotional exhaustion. In Study 3, changing organizational policies via implementing grievance procedures was effective in improving the study’s outcome variables. Originality/value Incivility norms predict some negative work outcomes such as incivility behaviors as both a victim and instigator, and emotional exhaustion. Further, reducing an adverse organizational norm (i.e. incivility norm) via instituting grievance procedures was effective in reducing incivility behaviors and emotional exhaustion.


Work engagement contagion from leader to follower through cognitive and affective mechanisms

November 2023

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71 Reads

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4 Citations

Purpose The main purpose of the current research is to examine affective and cognitive mechanisms by which the trickle-down effect of work engagement from leader to follower takes place. Design/methodology/approach The current research consisted of two independent studies. In study 1, an experience sampling method was used (N = 1,321 data points from 171 participants) to test within-person effects. In study 2, the authors recruited 266 employees working in 61 teams with two data collections one month apart, to test between-team effects among variables. Findings In two independent studies, leaders' work engagement resulted in followers engaging in surface acting (an affective process) and developing self-efficacy (a cognitive process), which in turn resulted in followers' work engagement. Originality/value The current research provides some clarifications to the literature on work contagion of engagement by examining dual mechanisms. In particular, although previous research emphasized the negative aspects of surface acting, the current research suggests that surface acting can be potentially helpful by facilitating the contagion effect of work engagement leaders to followers. Further, this research also examines the facilitative role of self-efficacy in mediating the relationship between a leader's work engagement and followers' work engagement. Finally, the authors conducted two independent studies that used different research designs, and results were consistent across the two studies, which can provide evidence for the robustness of the results.


My Self: The Key to Job Insecurity Predicting My Occupational and General Well-Being

June 2023

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382 Reads

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5 Citations

International Journal of Stress Management

We examine two types of job insecurity as stressors, focusing on (a) the underlying mechanism of organization-based self-esteem (OBSE) as a mediator based on stress-as-offense-to-self (SOS) theory and (b) the boundary conditions or moderators of role clarity and meaningful work based on resources theories. Data were obtained from 324 full-time U.S. employees across two surveys with a 2-week lag to examine job insecurity’s ability to predict both occupational and general well-being outcomes. We employed bootstrapping with PROCESS to test moderated mediation hypotheses. As predicted from SOS theory, OBSE mediated the relationships between the two types of job insecurity with employee well-being (job satisfaction, vigor, life satisfaction, and physical health). Additionally, the job resource of meaningful work moderated the relationships for both types of insecurity, and the resource of role clarity moderated the link only for affective insecurity. The conditional indirect effects of job insecurity on the four well-being outcomes via OBSE were stronger for those who have more meaningful work but less clear roles. Overall, the study found that one of the resources, role clarity, moderated the aversive effect of insecurity. Employees with insecure jobs can benefit from opportunities to boost their OBSE for their productive and healthy lives.


Citations (70)


... Abusive leaders are those who arbitrarily use their power and authority through yelling at, humiliating, and ridiculing their employees (Mitchell & Ambrose, 2007). Abusive supervision is by nature a type of job stressor that leads to interpersonal tensions between supervisors and subordinates (Bowling & Beehr, 2006;Semmer & Beehr, 2014). Subordinates who are abused by their supervisors can experience emotional exhaustion (Han et al., 2017) and undermined intrinsic motivation (Tariq & Ding, 2018) such that their job performance will be compromised. ...

Reference:

The Effect of Abusive Supervision on Employee Job Performance: The Moderating Role of Employment Contract Type
Job Control and Social Aspects of Work
  • Citing Chapter
  • February 2024

... Firstly, the research expands the scopes of literature on the outcomes of patient abuse by innovatively introducing the workfamily conflict into the model. Previous research mainly focused on personal aspects directly related to work such as sleep quality, job satisfaction, and career withdrawal [27,74,75]. Our findings indicate that the boundary between work and family life is permeable, and negative emotions may flow from the work area into the family domain, causing certain conflicts. ...

When experiencing nice interactions at work: Good sleep quality via well-being
  • Citing Article
  • March 2024

Stress and Health

... Moreover, based on a recent study employing ironic process theory, the mindfulness subfactors, namely observation and nonreaction in the FFMQ, were found to unintentionally prompt the exploration of thoughts or stimuli contrary to the intended desired state, leading to cognitive impairment. The argument posited that a deficiency in cognitive resources may contribute to the heightened perception of only negative thoughts or emotions [70]. Therefore, it is essential to investigate whether physical therapists perceive interpersonal stress as more intense than work-related stress. ...

The negative effect of solving the ‘white bear’ problem with mindfulness: Expansion and reconfirmation of mindfulness profiles based on ironic process theory
  • Citing Article
  • February 2024

Personality and Individual Differences

... Hur et al. (2016) argued that workplace incivility increases emotional exhaustion, influencing employee performance. When employees experience incivility, their emotional resources are drained, leading to higher levels of emotional exhaustion, which in turn hampers their ability to perform adaptively (Moon & Morais, 2022;Welbourne et al., 2020;Yun et al., 2024). Werang et al. (2024) found that emotional exhaustion mediates the relationships between workplace stressors and job performance outcomes. ...

Incivility organizational norms, incivility to coworkers and emotional exhaustion via supervisors' incivility: an intervention through changing organizational policies

... In fact, work engagement is beneficial to both organizations and employees, and promoting it has profound practical implications (Sweetman & Luthans, 2010). Besides enhancing employee perception of service climate as suggested by this study, strategies like building mutually beneficial relationships between supervisors and their employees (Du et al., 2023), enhancing work meaningfulness (Tan et al., 2023), and promoting the leader's work engagement (Yun & Beehr, 2024) can enhance employee work engagement. ...

Work engagement contagion from leader to follower through cognitive and affective mechanisms

... Research by Ilyas et al. [51] demonstrated that transformational leadership plays a crucial role in promoting job satisfaction, which, in turn, positively influences employee vocal behavior. Han et al. [52] and Kim and Beehr [53] further supported this by introducing external factors, like job insecurity and a green workplace design. Their results suggest a substantial correlation between these factors and employment satisfaction, which, in turn, affects employee well-being and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). ...

My Self: The Key to Job Insecurity Predicting My Occupational and General Well-Being

International Journal of Stress Management

... Studies reveal that self-efficacy influences employee entrepreneurial behavior (Kim and Beehr, 2023), mediates the relationship between social capital and entrepreneurial intention (Mahfud et al., 2020), and moderates the relationship between financial literacy and SME sustainability (Julito et al., 2021). Gender differences also exist in entrepreneurial self-efficacy, with males reporting higher levels than women (Nanjala, 2012). ...

Employees' entrepreneurial behavior within their organizations: empowering leadership and employees' resources help

International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research

... We first calculated the intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) to check if the variables have appropriate variance that is explained by each level ( Role of employees' perception of incivility higher than the recommended standard by previous researchers (Yang and Diefendorff, 2009;Yun and Beehr, 2023). Specifically, 84.8% of variance in incivility norm was explained by individual level (Level 2). ...

Eating versus sleeping: Lunchtime meals and naps relation to afternoon creativity at work
  • Citing Article
  • February 2023

Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being

... The study was guided by the conflict theory which emphasizes the importance of power in family life, families are frequently not safe havens but rather places where power battles can take place (Bennett et al., 2017). Family status roles are frequently performed as part of this power play; the conflict theory holds that the struggle for scarce resources keeps society in a condition of constant conflict (Orsini, 2024, Kossek et al. 2017. ...

Work-family conflict: Differences across generations and life cycles
  • Citing Article
  • June 2018

The Work Life Balance Bulletin a DOP Publication

... Without dismissing the value of other personal resources and job characteristics, two personal resources (self-e cacy and political skill) and two job characteristics (job autonomy and perceived organizational support) were selected as particularly worthy of attention in an effort to address this research question. Documented evidence of the effectiveness of these four independent variables as drivers of job crafting is already available (Kim and Beehr, 2023;Lawong, 2019;Rudolph et al. (2017). Additionally, malleability was an important selection criterion due to the opportunities it provides for change resulting from self-acquired experience and training for individuals with disability related work limitations. ...

Politically Skilled Employees Can Alter Their Jobs so That They Stay and Are Healthier

International Journal of Stress Management