Susan M. Brookhart's research while affiliated with Duquesne University and other places
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Publications (82)
Current conceptions of assessment describe interactive, reciprocal processes of co-regulation of learning from multiple sources, including students, their teachers and peers, and technological tools. In this systematic review, we examine the research literature for support for the view of classroom assessment as a mechanism of the co-regulation of...
The second edition of this book features the insights of the researchers culled from 10-years of work with schools, districts, principals, superintendents, Departments of Education, and professional organizations. It includes the authors' "Learning Target Theory of Action" along with updated information on the whole learning target, peer assessment...
Until recently, the classroom assessment literature has emphasized the role of teachers and tests, for example investigating teachers’ assessment practices or the quality of classroom tests and other assessments. In contrast, current understandings of teaching and learning emphasize the role of students, as well as the complex interactions between...
True rubrics feature criteria appropriate to an assessment's purpose, and they describe these criteria across a continuum of performance levels. The presence of both criteria and performance level descriptions distinguishes rubrics from other kinds of evaluation tools (e.g., checklists, rating scales). This paper reviewed studies of rubrics in high...
We have known for a long time that a relationship exists between how learning is assessed and the learning processes and strategies students employ when engaged in those assessments. Black and Wiliam pointed out in 1998 that self-regulated learning should be a primary goal of formative assessment (FA). Since then, a growing body of research on this...
Grading refers to the symbols assigned to individual pieces of student work or to composite measures of student performance on report cards. This review of over 100 years of research on grading considers five types of studies: (a) early studies of the reliability of grades, (b) quantitative studies of the composition of K–12 report card grades, (c)...
Self-regulation of learning occurs when learners set goals and then systematically carry out cognitive, affective, and behavioral practices and procedures that move them closer to those goals. Self-regulated learning (SRL) depends, in part, on information gleaned from classroom assessments about student learning and achievement. In this chapter we...
Twenty-eight studies of grades, over a century, were reviewed using the argument-based approach to validity suggested by Kane as a theoretical framework. The review draws conclusions about the meaning of graded achievement, its relation to tested achievement, and changes in the construct of graded achievement over time. Graded achievement reflects...
This review synthesizes the findings of studies of the use of rubrics in education settings published from 2005 to 2013. The review included studies only if the rubrics involved met the definition of having coherent sets of criteria and performance level descriptions for those criteria. Compared to the results of a previous review by Jonsson and Sv...
Research on formative classroom assessment practices and professional development is richer at the classroom/teacher level than at the building/administrator level. Yet administrator leadership is known to be critical for school reforms, including a change to more formative, learning-oriented assessment practices. The researchers conducted an explo...
When principals immerse themselves in learning about formative assessments and how students learn, they become better instructional leaders for teachers.
The United States education system depends on legislation and funding at the federal, state and local levels. Public understanding of assessment therefore is important to educational reform in the USA. Educational reformers often invoke assessment information as a reason for reform, typically by citing unacceptable achievement on some measure or in...
The effects of the classroom assessment environment on achievement in mathematics and science were investigated in this study. Data were obtained from the Longitudinal Study of American Youth, a national probability sample of public school students in 1987–1991, in two cohorts (Grades 7–10 and Grades 10–12+). Beyond the expected background effects...
Studies of the use of teacher judgement for summative assessment in the USA are considered in two general categories. (1) Studies of teacher classroom summative assessment, that is, teacher grading practices, have historically and currently emphasised the lack of validity and reliability of these judgements. (2) Studies of how teacher judgement acc...
This chapter seeks to answer the question, “What kinds of teacher feedback are most effective?” It begins by defining formative
assessment, the context in which most classroom feedback is given, and the role of the teacher in it. Then, building from
literature, 11 aspects of the decisions teachers make while giving feedback are identified: decision...
The 1990 Standards for Teacher Competence in Educational Assessment of Students (AFT, NCME, & NEA, 1990) made a documentable contribution to the field. However, the Standards have become a bit dated, most notably in two ways: (1) the Standards do not consider current conceptions of formative assessment knowledge and skills, and (2) the Standards do...
Six remedial reading teachers in a large, rural school district participated in a form of professional development called Teaching as Intentional Learning, based on an inquiry process. Their topic of inquiry was formative assessment. Professional development comprised both direct instruction and inquiry learning in teachers’ own classrooms. This st...
This article is organized into two parts: (a) a review of literature on teachers' grading practices, and (b) a discussion of the findings about teachers' grading practices in light of evaluation and motivation theory. The discussion considers both research implications and practical recommendations.
Teachers spend a great deal of their time in assessment or assessment-related activities (Stiggins & Conklin, 1992). This
chapter describes the nature of assessment in classrooms and addresses two questions.
First, how do teachers determine whether students have mastered a body of knowledge? Teacher-made or teacher-selected classroom
assessments t...
This chapter examines how males and females perform on different types of assessment tasks and in different disciplines. The
focus is on assessment tasks that indicate students’ levels of achievement in the academic disciplines taught in school: reading/language
arts, mathematics, science and social studies. The population of interest is school-age...
The most important instructional decisions, those with the greatest influence on student success, are made by learners themselves (Stiggins, 2008). Formative assessment, done well, contributes to student ownership of learning more than any other classroom-based instructional or assessment practice (Bloom, 1984). It is an economical, highly effectiv...
Motivation and effort patterns associated with achievement on classroom assess- ments in middle-school science and social studies were studied with a sample of 223 8th graders in different classroom assessment environments. Classroom assessment environments were characterized by student perceptions of the importance and value of assessment tasks, p...
Assistant Professor in the School of Education at Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15282. Her specializations are classroom assessment and teacher education.
How should a course on classroom assessment differ from an introductory psychometrics course? How should such a course be taught? How large a role should instruction concerning grading and communicating play in such a course?
A sample of 293 local district assessments used in the Nebraska STARS (School-based Teacher-led Assessment and Reporting System), 147 from 2004 district mathematics assessment portfolios and 146 from 2003 reading assessment portfolios, was scored with a rubric evaluating their quality. Scorers were Nebraska educators with background and training in...
Although the relationship between attitudes toward reading and reading achievement has been well documented, the causal relationship between these constructs remains unclear.Using longitudinal covariance structure modeling, this study tested the hypothesis that 3 reading-related constructs in the primary grades (2nd-3rd grade) – reading attitude, b...
Classroom assessment information should be the basis for important classroom processes and outcomes: students' study and work patterns, students' understanding of what they are learning, and teachers' instructional and grading decisions. Attention to principles of assessment quality, especially validity and reliability, increases confidence in the...
Forty-one students in two third grade classes, including special education students, participated in an action research project
conducted jointly by two university supervisors, three teachers, and three student teachers. The “Minute Math” project involved
students in predicting and graphing their test scores on a weekly conventional timed test of t...
The practice of classroom assessment occurs at the intersection of three teaching functions: instruction, classroom management, and assessment. Theory relevant to studying classroom assessment comes from several different areas: the study of individual differences (e.g., educational psychology, theories of learning and motivation), the study of gro...
The practice of classroom assessment occurs at the intersection of three teaching functions: instruction, classroom management, and assessment. Theory relevant to studying classroom assessment comes from several different areas: the study of individual differences (e.g., educational psychology, theories of learning and motivation), the study of gro...
In many fields of inquiry, the need for new theoretical developments is often best seen in areas of strain, and strain is apparent in several areas in which the conventions of measurement theory do not quite “fit” classroom assessment. Three areas of strain are analyzed in order to suggest how theoretical development might focus directly on informa...
Students' own voices describe their perceptions of classroom assessments: the assignment's interest and importance, students' self-efficacy for accomplishing the tasks, and the goal orientations behind their efforts at learning. A multiple case study design looked at seven classroom assessment environments--seven teachers' classrooms--in four diffe...
The purpose of this case study was to describe a variety of classroom assessment events in high school social studies classes. This study included data from 12 classroom assessment events in the classes of a teacher-re searcher in an urban high school. Four assessments in each course of the teacher-researcher's entire teaching load were studied. Th...
Classroom assessment events were studied by investigating students' perceptions of task, self-efficacy, effort, and goal orientations and achievement levels in third-grade language arts and fifth-grade mathematics and social studies. Whether student descriptions differ from one assessment event to the next was also studied. Subjects were students f...
The National Survey of Teacher Education Program Graduates was designed for use in teacher education follow-up surveys. The instrument addresses a pressing gap in teacher education. It was developed to respond to schools that desire quality programs and to meet the standards required by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education. T...
A theoretical framework describing the role of classroom assessment in student effort and achievement expected positive relations among perceived characteristics of the assessment task, perceived self-efficacy to do the task, amount of effort invested in the task, and achievement for each classroom assessment event within a classroom assessment env...
This study identified similarities and differences among two groups of entry-level teachers from 10 different teacher-preparation institutions (N = 1,700)—those who began their careers in racially/ethnically diverse schools (25% or more racial minority students) and those who taught in schools with low levels of racial/ethnic diversity (10% or fewe...
A model of the determinants of student effort and school-based achievement (Natriello & McDill, 1986) was replicated, then retested with the addition of an indicator of student perceptions of the difficulty of their classwork. In the original study, English grades as the dependent variable and data collected in 1964–65 were used. In the current rep...
This article presents a theory about the role of classroom assessment in motivating student effort and achievement. The theory postulates that in any particular class, the classroom assessment environment is played out in repeated classroom assessment events, activity segments with associated expectations and assessments. Within a classroom assessm...
Process Analysis is a method for identifying and then measuring the probability of events that could cause the failure of a program. It begins by identifying one primary and significant program objective. The ultimate result is a cause-and-effect tree structure of events that could contribute to failure to achieve the stated objective. Each event o...
Service learning has been shown to enhance elementary, secondary, and undergraduate college students' intellectual and prosocial behavior, cognitive learning, socialization, citizenship, self-esteem, mentoring ability, attitudes toward diverse communities, and job placement and development. This paper presents findings of a study that examined the...
A revised Leader Authenticity Scale was designed for use in determining the authenticity of both educational leaders and leaders outside of educational settings. The initial Leader Authenticity Scale had focused on ascertaining a school principal's authenticity as perceived by the school's faculty and staff. A Staff Authenticity Scale, derived from...
This article reports on two studies that describe the status of male elementary preservice and inservice teachers. One study looked at entering teacher candidates, describing differences between males entering elementary education and other teacher candidates, at three universities in the U.S.A. (n = 936), with three sets of variables: (1) high sch...
Classroom teachers do not always follow recommended grading practices. Why not? It is possible to conceptualize this question as a validity issue and ask whether teachers' concerns over the many uses of grades outweigh concerns about the interpretation of grades. The purpose of this study was to investigate the meaning classroom teachers associate...
Three Pittsburgh (Pennsylvania) universities and the Pittsburgh school district collaborated in the preparation of urban secondary teachers. A study of exemplary teachers' characteristics regarding successful lessons indicated that these teachers planned thoroughly and were concerned about making lessons relevant but not influenced by social and ec...
Characteristics of entering teacher candidates, defined as students enrolled in their first education course, have been the focus of 44 studies located for this review. Four major categories of variables have been studied: (a) demographics and high-school background; (b) motivation to teach and career expectations; (c) confidence and optimism or an...
Four dimensions (work tempo, professional focus, career reward structure, and sense of personal power and efficacy) involved in public school-university collaboration are examined. The study had the objectives of using summated rating scales to measure shared perceptions and to describe work perceptions of professional educators. A questionnaire wa...
Four frames of reference existing in school and university cultures were defined: (1) work tempo and the nature of professional time; (2) professional focus, from theoretical to practical; (3) career reward structure and the nature and importance of rewards for work; and (4) sense of personal power and efficacy, or the degree to which one perceives...
In school/university collaboration, different workplace cultures interact. Collaborators can expect to differ on their orientation toward tempo, focus, reward, and power. These four potential pitfalls for the collaborative development and implementation process are discussed, and strategies to avoid the pitfalls are outlined. (IAH)
Citations
... This happens because measurement is one of the many factors in the system that determine the success of education. Improving the quality of education can be done by creating a good measurement system (Brookhart & Mcmillan, 2019;Mardapi, 2012). Procedures for measurement activities must be systematic, their implementation must also have high accountability, and the expected results can explain the actual abilities of students. ...
... In this study, participants' CoRL levels were on average 0.5 points lower than SRL levels (see Table 2), and CoRL should receive even more attention. For CoRL, research has found that co-regulatory behaviors are usually triggered by a particular event, such as when there is inconsistency among group members in terms of task understanding, strategy use, and learning goals (Andrade et al., 2021). When these inconsistencies occur, teachers are advised to design scaffolds and tools to guide and support co-regulatory behaviors. ...
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... In terms of learning, teacher feedback is a crucial component in supporting students' learning (Ruiz-Primo & Brookhart, 2018). When teachers provide timely feedback, the assessment process can become a learning experience (Rogier, 2014). ...
... Consistent with previous literature, findings from this study suggest that teachers do consider non-achievement factors when determining end-of-term borderline grades. Although this practice might seem "hodgepodge" (Brookhart, 2001;Cizek et al., 1995;Cross & Frary, 1999;McMillan, 2003), I would argue that it is part of a much larger pattern in teachers' approaches to grading, which I will call "schema switching." When teachers approach grading, they do not approach it as a single, clearly defined activity; rather "grading" subsumes a variety of different socially and cognitively situated behaviors. ...
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... [11] An instructor may also use these online quizzes as a formative assessment instead of doing a traditional assessment in class. According to Moss and Brookhart [12], it is not only teachers that can use formative assessment but also students themselves, especially the latter so that they can manage themselves better as well as becoming confident learners. This idea also leads to a question, whether the students do these quizzes as part of a grade or just for fun, for the sake of learning and self-improvement. ...
![[object Object]](https://i1.rgstatic.net/ii/profile.image/284159303012352-1444760265233_Q64/Connie-Moss.jpg)
... Si bien existen algunas revisiones de la literatura vinculadas a la CoREG, estas por un lado no son revisiones sistemáticas, sino narrativas /o teórica principalmente, y por otro se han focalizado en variables similares o centrado en aspectos muy específicos, por ejemplo: se ha explorado un concepto similar denominado regulación socialmente compartida del aprendizaje (Panadero & Järvelä, 2015), se han revisado la literatura respectiva a los constructos de ARA, CoREG con la regulación socialmente compartida del aprendizaje (Dang et al., 2022) y se ha examinado la literatura para dar contenido a una teoría de la evaluación en el aula como mecanismo para la CoREG por parte de profesores, estudiantes, materiales didácticos y con-textos (Andrade & Brookhart, 2019). Así también, aunque se han encontrado revisiones sistemáticas de instrumentos de medida, estas son revisiones de los instrumentos disponibles para medir la ARA son en estudiantes de educación secundaria (López-Angulo et al., 2020) y otra revisión fue más amplia e incluyó los instrumentos de medida de ARA diseñados para estudiantes de distintos niveles educativos incluyendo la Educación Superior (León-Ron et al., 2020). ...
... Assessment for learning focuses on how students learn, is central to classroom practice, is a key professional skill, sensitive and constructive, fosters motivation, promotes understanding of goals and criteria, helps learners know how to improve, develops the capacity for self-assessment, and recognizes all educational achievement (Assessment Reform Group, 2002). Besides, AfL is an active and deliberate learning process in which the teacher and students collaborate to collect evidence of learning on a continuous and systematic basis with the explicit objective of enhancing student accomplishment (Moss & Brookhart, 2019). ...
... Hence, as observed in Fagell (2020), the teachers even adjusted the deadline for students to submit assessment tasks which is evident in the study, which reported that teachers supported students during the COVID-19 lockdowns. Brookhart's (2018) emphasis on using rubrics also became prominent as part of teachers' support and scaffolding measures during the pandemic. Lastly, practical lessons for value formation emphasized content knowledge. ...
... The social psychological conceptualization of fairness also nicely aligns with the socio-cultural theory of classroom assessment, as the adopted definition of classroom assessment in this study. Socio-cultural theory of classroom assessment promotes attention to social, cultural, and economic milieu within which assessments happen (Brookhart, 2018;Elwood & Murphy, 2015). This theory encourages looking beyond students' cognitive abilities and searches for clues about students' and teachers' personal histories that shape classroom assessment practices. ...
... Andrade & Brookhart, 2016;Clark, 2012;Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006;Zhang, 2017). The call for further fusion of assessment and SRL continues (Panadero et al., 2018). In a Special Issue of Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, Greene (2020) contends that the synergy between SRL and formative assessment makes the whole 'much larger than the sum of the individual parts' (p. ...
![[object Object]](https://i1.rgstatic.net/ii/profile.image/504013666951168-1497177630861_Q64/Ernesto-Panadero.jpg)
