Silvia Guetta’s scientific contributions

Cultural institutions responsible for preserving and transmitting the history and memory of the Holocaust include museums and memorials. These institutions remind visitors of the tragedy and aim to educate them about the events that led to it, the people affected and the lessons that can be learned from it. They also serve to honour the victims and those involved in relief efforts. Additionally, museums play a crucial role in disseminating cultural memory, which encompasses both individual and collective processes. As Nora describes, museums can be considered “lieux de mémoire”, symbolic elements of a community’s memory and ethical projects that encourage visitors to learn from the past, fostering a common sense of guilt and responsibility that binds the nation together. This is particularly true of memorial museums, which act as a form of public education and help community members remember and reflect on difficult events from the past. By engaging with these memories and understanding their significance, people can learn from the past and form a shared sense of responsibility for the future.

A partire dall'inizio degli anni '90, si è assistito alla nascita e allo sviluppo di una dimensione europea della memoria all'interno della quale il ricordo della Shoah ha giocato un ruolo sempre più fondamentale (Levy & Sznaider, 2006). Ciò che è avvenuto è stato uno spostamento dalle politiche della memoria e dell'identità gestite dagli stati nazionali, che esercitavano un potere simbolico sulla sua attuazione (Sierp, 2021), da un lato nella direzione della memoria locale e del coinvolgimento della società civile nella costruzione della memoria storica, e dall'altro verso la memoria transnazionale, che ha visto l'attiva partecipazione delle organizzazioni internazionali. Fanno parte della dimensione locale i movimenti sociali che hanno messo in discussione e spesso esercitato un controllo sulle istituzioni pubbliche di commemorazione all'interno dei diversi Paesi, anche attraverso forme di revisionismo storico sostenute a livello di rappresentanza politica. Fanno, invece, parte della dimensione transnazionale la nascita di organizzazioni intergovernative quali l'International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (IHRA) , che unisce governi ed esperti da 35 Paesi, il cui obiettivo è rafforzare, far progredire e promuovere l'educazione, la memoria e la ricerca sulla Shoah in tutto il mondo. Attraverso la riunione di esperti nell'educazione, nella ricerca e nel ricordo della Shoah, tra cui professionisti dei musei, dei memoriali e dell'educazione, storici, archeologi e specialisti in studi sul genocidio e altre discipline, l'IHRA è impegnata nei campi dell'educazione, della memoria e della ricerca sulla Shoah e sul genocidio dei Rom attraverso la presentazione di raccomandazioni politiche significative.

A partire dall'inizio degli anni '90, si è assistito alla nascita e allo sviluppo di una dimensione europea della memoria all'interno della quale il ricordo della Shoah ha giocato un ruolo sempre più fondamentale (Levy & Sznaider, 2006). Ciò che è avvenuto è stato uno spostamento dalle politiche della memoria e dell'identità gestite dagli stati nazionali, che esercitavano un potere simbolico sulla sua attuazione (Sierp, 2021), da un lato nella direzione della memoria locale e del coinvolgimento della società civile nella costruzione della memoria storica, e dall'altro verso la memoria transnazionale, che ha visto l'attiva partecipazione delle organizzazioni internazionali. Fanno parte della dimensione locale i movimenti sociali che hanno messo in discussione e spesso esercitato un controllo sulle istituzioni pubbliche di commemorazione all'interno dei diversi Paesi, anche attraverso forme di revisionismo storico sostenute a livello di rappresentanza politica. Fanno, invece, parte della dimensione transnazionale la nascita di organizzazioni intergovernative quali l'International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (IHRA) , che unisce governi ed esperti da 35 Paesi, il cui obiettivo è rafforzare, far progredire e promuovere l'educazione, la memoria e la ricerca sulla Shoah in tutto il mondo. Attraverso la riunione di esperti nell'educazione, nella ricerca e nel ricordo della Shoah, tra cui professionisti dei musei, dei memoriali e dell'educazione, storici, archeologi e specialisti in studi sul genocidio e altre discipline, l'IHRA è impegnata nei campi dell'educazione, della memoria e della ricerca sulla Shoah e sul genocidio dei Rom attraverso la presentazione di raccomandazioni politiche significative.

FÜR WEN SIND DIESE LEITLINIEN UND EMPFEHLUNGEN GEDACHT? Dieser Bericht soll Holocaust-Museen und -Gedenkstätten eine Reihe von Leitlinien und Empfehlungen an die Hand geben, um dem Phänomen der Holocaust-Verzerrung auf Social-Media- Kanälen zu begegnen. Da diese Einrichtungen zunehmend wichtige Eckpfeiler gegen die Verzerrung des Holocausts darstellen, haben sie vielfältige Herausforderungen, aber auch Möglichkeiten, die historische Überlieferung zu schützen, und benötigen Unterstützung, um den Herausforderungen, die von denjenigen ausgehen, die die Wahrheit verzerren, zu begegnen. Vor diesem Hintergrund hebt der Bericht mehrere Maßnahmen hervor, die Gedenkstätten und Museen ergreifen können, um die Auswirkungen der verschiedenen Formen der Holocaust-Verzerrung in den sozialen Medien zu verringern. WARUM IST DIE VERZERRUNG DES HOLOCAUSTS EIN ANLIEGEN DER ZIVILGESELLSCHAFT? Missbrauch, Ausreden, falsche Darstellungen und Manipulationen der Geschichte des Holocausts sind auf allen Ebenen der Gesellschaft zu finden. Dabei handelt es sich keineswegs um ein Randphänomen: Beispiele finden sich bei Regierungen, die versuchen, ihre historische Verantwortung zu minimieren, bei Verschwörungstheoretikern, welche jüdische Gemeinschaften mit Anschuldigungen konfrontieren ihr Leid zu ihrem Vorteil zu übertreiben, und bei Online-NutzerInnen, welche die mit dem Holocaust assoziierte Bilder und Sprache für politische, ideologische oder kommerzielle Zwecke verwenden, die nichts mit der Geschichte zu tun haben. Unabhängig von ihrer Form haben die Verzerrung des Holocausts und ihre potenziellen direkten oder indirekten Auswirkungen - Antisemitismus, Holocaust-Leugnung, Verschwörungsmythen und extremer Nationalismus - eine internationale Dimension und Relevanz, welche eine internationale Reaktion erfordern. Was die sozialen Medien anbelangt, so haben diese zwar Einzelpersonen und Gruppen die Möglichkeit gegeben, sich auf globaler Ebene zu vernetzen und sofortigen Zugang zu Informationen und Wissen zu erhalten, aber sie haben auch die Verbreitung von hasserfüllten Inhalten, einschließlich Antisemitismus, Holocaust-Leugnung und -Verzerrung in einem noch nie dagewesenen Ausmaß ermöglicht. WAS SIND DIE HERAUSFORDERUNGEN BEI DER BEKÄMPFUNG DER HOLOCAUST-VERZERRUNG? Im Gegensatz zur Holocaust-Leugnung - dem Versuch, den Holocaust aus der Geschichte zu löschen - wird bei der Holocaust-Verzerrung, welche nicht immer leicht zu identifizieren ist, der Holocaust auf unterschiedliche Weise in Medien entschuldigt, verharmlost oder falsch dargestellt. Während weitgehend Einigkeit darüber besteht, dass die Leugnung des Holocausts durch Antisemitismus genährt wird, wird die Verzerrung des Holocausts entweder als eine Form des “sekundären Antisemitismus” oder als Manipulation der Geschichte des Holocausts und seiner Erinnerung zu unterschiedlichen Zwecken betrachtet. Obwohl missbräuchliche Geschichtsdarstellungen jedes historische Ereignis betreffen können, nimmt die Zahl Verzerrungen der Geschichte des Holocausts heute zu, wobei verschiedene Formen der Verzerrungen identifiziert werden können. Da es keine einzelne, generelle Maßnahme gegen alle Formen der Verzerrung gibt, müssen je nach geografischem oder sozialem Kontext verschiedene, spezifische Maßnahmen ergriffen werden. WAS KÖNNEN GEDENKSTÄTTEN UND MUSEEN TUN, UM DER VERZERRUNG DES HOLOCAUSTS IN DEN SOZIALEN MEDIEN ENTGEGENZUWIRKEN? Die Frage nach den Maßnahmen, mit denen Museen und Materialien zu diesem Zweck ausgestattet werden können, erfordert einen komplexen, ganzheitlichen Ansatz. Obwohl keine der Maßnahmen das Problem in Gänze lösen oder eingrenzen kann, ist es wichtig zu betonen, dass Museen und Gedenkstätten mehrere Maßnahmen zur Verfügung haben: Sie können dazu beitragen, das Wissen über den Holocaust vor allem bei jungen Menschen zu erweitern, indem sie Inhalte bereitstellen, welche den sprachlichen und medialen Gewohnheiten Jugendlicher entsprechen; sie können die Gemeinschaft der Social Media Fans und FollowerInnen aktiv einbeziehen, indem sie in die Schaffung eines ein sicheren und kooperativen Umfelds einbeziehen; sie können sich auf nationale oder lokale Besonderheiten der Verzerrung des Holocausts konzentrieren; sie können den Unterschied zwischen absichtlicher Verzerrung und Verzerrung aufgrund mangelnden Wissens erkennen; sie können in die berufliche Entwicklung und Weiterbildung des Personals investieren und sie können die internationale Zusammenarbeit und den Austausch durch den Aufbau von Netzwerken zwischen Gedenkstätten und Museen sowie mit anderen Holocaust-Einrichtungen, stärken.

Executive summary The context. Abuse, excuse, misrepresentation and manipulation of the history of the Holocaust are far from a fringe phenomenon. They have an international dimension and considerable weight (e.g., governments that seek to minimize their historical responsibility, conspiracy theorists who accuse Jews of exaggerating their suffering for financial gain, and online users who make use of imagery and language associated with the Holocaust for political, ideological, or commercial purposes unrelated to its history). As for social media, while their rise has enabled individuals and groups to connect on a global level and to gain instant access to information and knowledge, they have also allowed dissemination and spread of hateful content, including antisemitism and Holocaust denial and distortion, at an unprecedented rate. The problem. Although agencies and institutions concerned with Holocaust education and remembrance are well aware of the growing role of digital communication, there is little understanding of how small- and medium-sized Holocaust museums and memorials use social media to disseminate knowledge and memory of the Holocaust to the general public and to counter manipulation and distortion of Holocaust history. Both academic research and stakeholders have so far focused on the mission and practices of major Holocaust agencies, while neglecting to investigate the potential and critical issues that small and medium-sized museums and memorials face in both disseminating historical content and dealing with the phenomenon of distortion on social media. The contribution. This project focuses on a group of Holocaust museums and memorials located in two countries – Italy and Germany – in order to investigate their use of the main social media - Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and YouTube - for the purposes of disseminating historical content, carrying out commemorative practices and countering the spread of Holocaust distortion. The project adopts an approach that conceives social media as a positive technology both for detecting good practices and for exploring critical issues in the very use of social media themselves. The approach is based on an investigative method that employs a range of quantitative and qualitative research tools. The idea is to analyse how museums and memorials use social media to expand Holocaust knowledge and memory, especially among the younger generations, and to activate groups of users and co-creators involved in user-generated content to protect the facts about the Holocaust and mitigate the challenges of distortion. The results. The various analyses carried out in the project have revealed a number of good practices and limitations that can currently be found in the social media profiles of the surveyed museums and memorials. Furthermore, although Holocaust remembrance has become a global, transcultural phenomenon, especially within European countries, national differences also exist between different local environments. The results achieved have made it possible to identify a number of current limitations, such as a mismatch between scholarly debates and public knowledge, limited bi-directional interaction with social media users, and the provision of materials that are not generally suitable for younger generations. A number of recommendations and guidelines have also been produced, such as further expanding historical knowledge of the Holocaust, investigating users’ preconceptions and biases, promoting the digital culture of remembrance, actively involving the follower/fan communities, and networking between entities with limited resources to share good practices and plan joint activities. These are all measures that Holocaust museums and memorials may adopt to encourage the development of forms of Holocaust knowledge and remembrance that are participatory, innovative and critical.

Abusi, scuse, travisamenti e manipolazioni della storia della Shoah si possono riscontrare a tutti i livelli della società. Si tratta di un fenomeno tutt'altro che marginale: se ne possono trovare esempi nei governi che cercano di minimizzare la loro responsabilità storica, nei teorici della cospirazione che accusano gli ebrei di esagerare le loro sofferenze a scopo di lucro e negli utenti online che fanno uso di immagini e linguaggio associati alla Shoah per scopi politici, ideologici o commerciali che non hanno legami con la sua storia. Indipendentemente dalla sua forma, la distorsione della Shoah e i suoi potenziali effetti diretti o indiretti - antisemitismo, negazione della Shoah, miti cospirativi e nazionalismo estremo - hanno una dimensione e una rilevanza internazionale e pertanto richiedono una risposta internazionale. Per quanto riguarda i social media, se da un lato la loro ascesa ha permesso a individui e gruppi di connettersi a livello globale e di avere accesso istantaneo a informazioni e conoscenze, dall'altro hanno consentito l’esponenziale diffusione e la divulgazione di contenuti carichi d’odio, tra cui l'antisemitismo e la negazione e distorsione della Shoah. Il presente rapporto intende fornire ai musei e ai memoriali della Shoah una serie di linee guida e raccomandazioni per contrastare il fenomeno della distorsione della Shoah sui canali dei social media. Poiché queste istituzioni si configurano come pilastri sempre più importanti contro la distorsione della Shoah, esse non solo hanno molteplici opportunità di salvaguardare la documentazione storica ma hanno anche bisogno di aiuto per affrontare le sfide poste da coloro che distorcono la verità. In quest'ottica, il rapporto evidenzia diverse azioni che i memoriali e i musei della Shoah possono intraprendere per contribuire a ridurre l'impatto delle diverse forme di distorsione della Shoah sui social media. A differenza della negazione della Shoah, cioè il tentativo di cancellare la Shoah dalla storia, la distorsione della Shoah giustifica, minimizza o travisa la Shoah in una varietà di modi utilizzando vari mezzi di comunicazione non sempre facilmente identificabili. Mentre vi è un ampio consenso sul fatto che la negazione della Shoah sia alimentata dall'antisemitismo, la distorsione della Shoah è considerata una forma di antisemitismo secondario o una manipolazione della storia della Shoah e della sua memoria per vari scopi. Sebbene la narrazione storica irresponsabile e abusiva possa riguardare qualsiasi evento storico, oggi il numero di mutazioni e distorsioni della storia della Shoah sta crescendo e sta progressivamente assumendo diverse forme dilaganti. Poiché non esistono misure uniche e generali contro tutte le forme di distorsione, dovranno essere attuate diverse azioni specifiche a seconda del contesto geografico o sociale.

Abuse, excuse, misrepresentation and manipulation of the history of the Holocaust can be found at all levels of society. This is far from a fringe phenomenon: examples may be found in governments that seek to minimize their historical responsibility, conspiracy theorists who accuse Jews of exaggerating their suffering for financial gain, and online users who make use of imagery and language associated with the Holocaust for political, ideological, or commercial purposes unrelated to its history. Regardless of its form, Holocaust distortion and its potential direct or indirect effects – antisemitism, Holocaust denial, conspiracy myths and extreme nationalism – have an international dimension and relevance, and require an international response. As for social media, while their rise has enabled individuals and groups to connect on a global level and to have instant access to information and knowledge, they have also allowed spread and dissemination of hateful content, including antisemitism and Holocaust denial and distortion at an unprecedented rate. This report aims to provide Holocaust museums and memorials with a set of guidelines and recommendations to counter the phenomenon of Holocaust distortion on social media channels. As these institutions are increasingly important bulwarks against Holocaust distortion, they have manifold opportunities for safeguarding the historical record and need help to face the challenges posed by those who distort the truth. In this light, the report highlights several actions that Holocaust memorials and museums can take to help reduce the impact of different forms of Holocaust distortion on social media. Unlike Holocaust denial – the attempt to erase the Holocaust from history – Holocaust distortion excuses, minimizes, or misrepresents the Holocaust in a variety of ways and through various media which are not always readily identifiable. While there is broad agreement that Holocaust denial is fuelled by antisemitism, Holocaust distortion is either considered a form of secondary antisemitism or manipulation of Holocaust history and its memory for various purposes. Although irresponsible and abusive history may affect any historical event, today the number of mutations and distortions of Holocaust history are growing and are progressively assuming diverse rampant forms. As there are no single, general measures against all forms of distortion, several specific actions will have to be implemented depending on the geographical or social context.

In this report, we present the findings of a Delphi Study aimed at validating a framework which has been designed to analyse Holocaust-related content published on the social media profiles of Holocaust museums. The study may also be considered as a pedagogical tool for teachers to provide orientation for conducting their own analysis or research and find best practices to navigate the various materials available on social media for studying and teaching about the Holocaust. The framework serves the purpose of providing guidance on how to classify information pertaining to three major domains: Historical content of the Holocaust, Contemporary issues related to the Holocaust, and Museum activities and communication. Each domain comprises a set of macro and micro categories, for each of which a definition and examples have been given. Depending on the nature of the posts, some categories may be selected, and others ignored. Key Findings • This Delphi study involved a comprehensive panel of 22 international experts who, in a three round process, reached consensus on a framework composed of a set of macro and micro categories organised into three domains that are suitable for capturing the various topics addressed by Holocaust museums in their social media profiles in the field of Digital Holocaust Memory. • The framework was extensively revised from Round 1 to Round 2, while Round 3 served the purpose of refining some micro categories and their definitions. • The final framework comprises three domains and is constituted by 18 macro categories and 68 micro categories. • Periodisation of historical content, agency and stages of the Holocaust remain open issues as there is still much debate among historians about these notions.

In this report, we present the findings of a survey which was aimed at investigating if and how a large sample of Holocaust museums and memorials use Social Media (SM) in their communication channels. The findings reported in this study reflect the responses of 69 Holocaust museums and memorials from across the world. The most representative countries are Germany (36.2%), the United States of America (13.0%), Italy (10.1%), Austria (5.8%) and Poland (5.8%). The institutions vary widely in age, ranging from the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum and Památník Terezín, established in 1947, to the most recent KL Plaszow Museum and Memorial in Krakow, opened in 2021. In terms of type, they are mostly Memorial Sites (54%), Holocaust Museums (38%) and Former Concentration Camps (41%), but War and Military and Virtual museums are also included in the sample. Almost all the institutions have a website (99%) and 61 out of 69 (88%) reported using SM as a communication channel. Key Findings • Attitudes towards social media are globally positive, with 96% of respondents that consider SM beneficial for the museum/memorial and an important means for outreach (91%). While respondents consider SM a worthwhile investment (83%), they also expressed a need for dedicated resources to be set aside for SM (72%), with 54% reporting that SM require more resources than the museum can currently afford. • 59% of the institutions using SM have been doing so for over three years. • The Museums/memorials that use SM tend to concentrate on a few platforms. Facebook is the most frequently used (87% use it daily or weekly), followed by Instagram (62%, daily and weekly use) and Twitter (45%, daily and weekly use). • 48% of the institutions have an internal SM manager, while only 10% use an external SM Manager. In 31% of cases, the Director is in charge of social media profiles. Persons in charge of SM profiles have specific expertise in SM management or marketing only in 38% of cases. . • In terms of SM content, the institutions tend to publish mainly educational material (80%), to use SM for sharing information about activities and initiatives (74%) and to organise educational events (70%) often or very often. • 90% of the respondents reported that their institution follows the SM profile of other museums/memorials and 67% declared that they draw inspiration from those profiles. • Only 30% reported the intention to change their SM policies and strategies, mostly to diversify content according to the nature of the different platforms, to develop specific content for SM, to increase the number of platforms used, and to improve strategies and interaction with followers/fans. • As for changes induced by the COVID-19 pandemic, 89% reported pandemic-induced changes in various activities. Most institutions have increased the number of online events (79%), the frequency of posting (75%), and the variety of contents (74%). Other activities such as fundraising campaigns (80%) and contests/competitions (79%) have remained constant, while training on SM marketing has only increased in 25% of cases.