Roy L. Kirkpatrick’s research while affiliated with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and other places

We collected blood samples from captive adult female black bears (Ursus americanus) at 10-day intervals during September–March in 1987–1988 and 1988–1989 (6 bears/year) in Virginia. Ten of 12 bears hibernated for an average of 92 days. Serum progesterone concentrations slowly increased from 2 to 7 ng/mL during October and November, then increased 2- to 3-fold 58 ± 5 days before parturition in five bears that produced cubs. After the implantation peak, progesterone gradually declined, reaching undetectable levels 1–2 days postpartum. Similar but more variable progesterone profiles were observed in five of seven bears that did not produce any observed cubs. Progesterone was also assayed in 38 active wild black bears to relate to reproductive status in the den. Results suggested that pseudopregnancy, implantation failure, or fetal resorption may occur in black bears. Mean serum estradiol-17β concentrations were 18.5 ± 0.7 (SE) pg/mL in captive bears, with pregnant bears showing no change between implantation and parturition. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of serum proteins was not a reliable indicator of pregnancy.

Regression equations for estimating diet digestibility in meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus) were developed using laboratory digestion trials and chemical analyses of diets and stomach contents. These equations were used to obtain estimates of the apparent digestible dry matter (DDM) and apparent digestible energy (DE) in the diets of wild meadow voles. The estimated DDM and DE in the diets of two wild meadow vole populations varied between 62.9 and 75.2% and 62.0 and 74.2%, respectively, and were similar to those reported previously for pine voles (Microtus pinetorum).

Blood samples were serially collected from captive and wild white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) while subjected to various methods of restraint in the process of blood collection. The methods of restraint included three drug treatments (succinylcholine chloride (SCC), RO-5-3448, and phencyclidine hydrochloride plus promazine hydrochloride (PH + P)) and physical restraint. Packed cell volumes (PCV) were highest in deer while they were manually restrained. PCV declined moderately following SCC and RO-5-3448 administration and decreased dramatically following PH + P administration. Total proteins generally were highest during manual restraint and declined in a similar manner as PCV with all drug treatments. Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) apparently was unaffected by the method or restraint. Glucose levels were highest in deer sampled during SCC treatments and were variable in all other treatments. All results of blood analyses, except BUN, appeared more closely related to and better explained by the relative stress at handling rather than an effect directly due to the handling method.

Seasonal and habitat variation in diet digestibility of pine voles (Microtus pinetorum) in four apple orchards was estimated using regression equations and the Van Soest analysis of stomach contents. The estimated percent digestible energy of diets in the four orchards varied from 57 to 72% during the year but a uniform seasonal pattern was not found among orchards. Weights of stomach contents declined markedly during winter in all four habitats.

A Van Soest analysis of feed and fecal samples from 24 digestion trials with pine voles (Microtus pinetorum) and 18 digestion trials with meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus) was used to examine the digestive capabilities of these species and the effect of feed constituents on fiber digestion. The neutral detergent soluble fraction of feeds and forages (NDS) was the most readily available for voles. Percent neutral detergent fiber (NDF) digestibility was variable and inversely related (P = 0.0001) to the percent NDF of the diets for both pine and meadow voles. NDF digestibility was not related (P > 0.30) to the percentage of lignin in the NDF or acid detergent fiber (ADF). NDF digestion accounted for 15 and 21% of the dry matter digested by pine voles and meadow voles, respectively, on a high fiber diet (40% NDF).

The Appalachian Cooperative Grouse Research Project (ACGRP) was a multistate cooperative effort initiated in 1996 to investigate the apparent decline of ruffed grouse ( Bonasa umbellus ) and improve management throughout the central and southern Appalachian region (i.e., parts of Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Kentucky, West Virginia, Virginia, and North Carolina, USA). Researchers have offered several hypotheses to explain the low abundance of ruffed grouse in the region, including low availability of early‐successional forests due to changes in land use, additive harvest mortality, low productivity and recruitment, and nutritional stress. As part of the ACGRP, we investigated ruffed grouse population ecology. Our objectives were to estimate reproductive rates, estimate survival and cause‐specific mortality rates, examine if ruffed grouse harvest in the Appalachian region is compensatory, and estimate ruffed grouse finite population growth. We trapped >3,000 ruffed grouse in autumn (Sep‐Nov) and spring (Feb‐Mar) from 1996 to September 2002 on 12 study areas. We determined the age and gender of each bird and fitted them with necklace‐style radiotransmitters and released them at the trap site. We tracked ruffed grouse ≥2 times per week using handheld radiotelemetry equipment and gathered data on reproduction, recruitment, survival, and mortality. Ruffed grouse population dynamics in the Appalachian region differed from the central portion of the species' range (i.e., northern United States and Canada). Ruffed grouse in the Appalachian region had lower productivity and recruitment, but higher survival than reported for populations in the Great Lakes region and southern Canada. Population dynamics differed between oak ( Quercus spp.)–hickory ( Carya spp.) and mixed‐mesophytic forest associations within the southern and central Appalachian region. Productivity and recruitment were lower in oak‐hickory forests, but adult survival was higher than in mixed‐mesophytic forests. Furthermore, ruffed grouse productivity and recruitment were more strongly related to hard mast (i.e., acorn) production in oak‐hickory forests than in mixed‐mesophytic forests. The leading cause of ruffed grouse mortality was avian predation (44% of known mortalities). Harvest mortality accounted for 12% of all known mortalities and appeared to be compensatory. Population models indicated ruffed grouse populations in the Appalachian region are declining (%LD = 0.78–0.95), but differences in model estimates highlighted the need for improved understanding of annual productivity and recruitment. We posit ruffed grouse in the Appalachian region exhibit a clinal population structure characterized by changes in life‐history strategies. Changes in life history strategies are in response to gradual changes in forest structure, quality of food resources, snowfall and accumulation patterns, and predator communities. Management efforts should focus on creating a mosaic of forest stand ages across the landscape to intersperse habitat resources including nesting and brood cover, adult escape cover, roosting sites, and, most importantly, food resources. Land managers can intersperse habitat resources through a combination of clearcutting, shelterwood harvests, group selection, and timber stand improvement (including various thinnings and prescribed fire). Managers should maintain current ruffed grouse harvest rates while providing high quality hunting opportunities. We define high quality hunting as low hunting pressure, low vehicle traffic, and high flush rates. Managers can provide high quality hunting opportunities through use of road closures in conjunction with habitat management. RESUMEN El proyecto de investigación cooperativo del grouse superado de apalache (ACGRP) era un esfuerzo cooperativo del multi‐estado iniciado en 1996 para investigar la declinación evidente del grouse superado ( Bonasa umbellus ) y para mejorar el manejo a través de la región apalache central y meridional (es decir, partes de Ohio, de Pennsylvania, de Rhode Island, de Kentucky, de Virginia Occidental, de Virginia, y de Tennessee, en los E.E.U.U.). Como parte de la ACGRP, investigamos la ecología superada de la población del grouse superado. Nuestros objetivos eran: estimar las tarifas reproductivas, estimar la supervivencia y las tarifas causar‐específicas de la mortalidad, examinar si la cosecha del grouse superado en la región apalache es compensatoria, y estimar el crecimiento finito superado de la población del grouse superado. Varias hipótesis se han ofrecido para explicar la abundancia baja del grouse superado en la región, incluyendo la disponibilidad baja de los bosques jóvenes debido a los cambios en utilización del suelo, mortalidad aditiva de la cosecha, bajo productividad y reclutamiento, y tensión alimenticia. Atrapamos grouse superado >3,000 en el otoño (septiembre a noviembre) y en la primavera (febrero a marzo) a partir de 1996 al septiembre de 2002 en 12 áreas del estudio. Determinamos la edad y el sexo de cada pájaro y los cupimos con los radio‐transmisores del estilo collar y los lanzamos en el sitio de la trampa. Seguimos el grouse superado ≥2 veces por semana usando equipo de la telemetría de radio de la estilo de mano y recopilamos datos sobre la reproducción, el reclutamiento, la supervivencia, y la mortalidad. La dinámica de población del grouse superado en la región apalache diferenció de la porción central alcance de la del especie (es decir, el norte de los Estados Unidos y Canadá). El grouse superado en la región apalache tenía una productividad y un reclutamiento más bajo, pero supervivencia más alta que divulgada para las poblaciones en la región de los Great Lakes y el Canada meridional. La dinámica de población diferenció entre bosques del roble ( Quercus ), el nuez dura ( Carya ) y bosques del estilo mesophytic mezclado dentro de la región apalache meridional y central. La productividad y el reclutamiento eran más bajos en bosques del roble yel nuez dura, pero la supervivencia del adulto era más alta que en bosques mesophytic mezclados. Además, la productividad y reclutamiento del grouse superado fueron relacionados más fuertemente a la producción dura del mástil (es decir, bellota) en bosques del roble y nuez dura que en bosques mesophytic mezclado. La causa principal de la mortalidad del grouse superado era la depredación aviar (el 44% de mortalidades sabidas). La mortalidad de la cosecha explicó el 12% de todas las mortalidades sabidas y aparecía ser compensatoria. Los modelos de población indican que las poblaciones del grouse superado en la región apalache están declinando (Λ = 0.78–0.95), pero las diferencias en las estimaciones modelo indican la necesidad de la comprensión mejorada de la productividad y del reclutamiento anuales. Postulamos que el grouse superado en la region apalache muestra una estructura de la población clinal con los cambios en estrategias de la vida‐historia en respuesta a cambios graduales en la calidad de los recursos del alimento, las nevadas y los patrones de la acumulación, y las comunidades despredadoras. Los esfuerzos del manejo deben centrarse en crear un mosaico de las edades del soporte de bosque a través del paisaje para entremezclar recursos del habitat incluyendo la cubierta para nidos y la cría de jovenes, la cubierta del escape del adulto, sitios para perchas, y más importante recursos del alimento. Interspersion de los recursos del habitat se puede lograr con una combinación de cortes selectivos, de los cortes del claro, del fuego prescrito, y de crear boquetes de diámetro bajo del pabellón matando a árboles individuales. El manejo de la cosecha se debe diseñar para mantener tarifas actuales de la cosecha mientras que proporciona oportunidades de la caza de la alta calidad. Definimos la caza de la alta calidad como la presión baja de la caza, el tráfico bajo del vehículo, y tarifas rasantes del colmo. El manejo de la caza de la alta calidad puede ser lograda con el uso de los encierros del camino conjuntamente con el manejo del habitat. Écologie de Population de Grouse de Ruffed dans la Région Appalachienne RÉSUMÉ Le projetde recherche coopératif appalachien (ACGRP) était un effort coopératif de multi‐état lancé en 1996 pour étudier le déclin apparent de ruffed la grouse ( Bonasa umbellus ) et améliorent la gestion dans toute la région appalachienne centrale et méridionale (c.‐à‐d., régions de l'Ohio, de la Pennsylvanie, de Île de Rhode, du Kentucky, de la Virginie Occidentale, de la Virginie, et du Tennessee, Etats‐Unis). En tant qu'élément de l'ACGRP, nous avons étudié ruffed l'écologie de population de grouse. Nos objectifs étaient: estimer les taux reproducteurs, estimer la survie et les taux causer‐spécifiques de mortalité, les examiner si ruffed la grouse que la moisson dans la région appalachienne est compensatoire, et l'évaluation ruffed la croissance finie de population de grouse. Plusieurs hypothèses ont été offertes pour expliquer la basse abondance de ruffed la grouse dans la région, y compris la basse disponibilité des forêts d'early‐successional dues aux changements de l'utilisation de la terre, la mortalité additive de moisson, la productivité et le recrutement faible, et l'effort alimentaire. Nous avons emprisonné >3,000 ruffed la grouse en automne (Septembre.–Nov.) et ressort (Fév.–Mars.) de 1996 au Septembre 2002 sur 12 secteurs d'étude. Nous avons déterminé l'âge et le sexe de chaque oiseau et les avons équipés des émetteurs par radio de collier‐modèle et les avons libérés à l'emplacement de piège. Nous avons dépisté ruffed des temps de la grouse ≥2 par semaine à l'aide de l'équipement tenu dans la main de radiotélémétrie et avons recueilli des données sur la reproduction, le recrutement, la survie, et la mortalité. La dynamique de population de grouse de Ruffed dans la région appalachienne a différé de la partie centrale de la gamme des espèces (c.‐à‐d., les Etats‐Unis et le Canada nordiques). La grouse de Ruffed dans la région appalachienne a eu une productivité et un recrutement plus faible, mais une survie plus élevée que rapportée aux populations la région de Great Lakes et au Canada méridional. La dynamique de population a différé entre le chêne ( quercus )–hickory ( Carya ) et associations mélangées‐mesophytic de forêt dans la région appalachienne méridionale et centrale. La productivité et le recrutement étaient inférieurs dans des forêts de chêne‐hickory, mais la survie d'adulte était plus haute que dans les forêts mélangées‐mesophytic. En outre, ruffed la productivité de grouse et le recrutement plus fortement ont été lies à la production dure de mat (c.‐à‐d., gland) dans des forêts de chêne‐hickory que dans les forêts mélangées‐mesophytic. La principale cause de ruffed la grouse que la mortalité é tait la prédation aviaire (44% de mortalités connues). La mortalité de moisson a expliqué 12% de toutes les mortalités connues et a semblé ê tre compensatoire. La population que les modèles indiquent ruffed la grouse les populations dans la région appalachienne refusent (Λ = 0.78–0.95), mais les differences dans les évaluations modèles indiquent le besoin d'arrangement amélioré de la productivité et du recrutement annuels. Nous posons en principe ruffed la grouse dans l'objet exposé appalachien de région une structure de population de clinal avec des changements des stratégies de vie‐histoire en réponse aux changements progressifs de la qualité des ressources de nourriture, des chutes de neige et des modèles d'accumulation, et des communautés prédatrices. Les efforts de gestion devraient se concentrer sur créer une mosaïque des âges de peuplement de forêt à travers le paysage pour entremêler des ressources d'habitat comprenant la couverture d'emboîtement et de couvée, la couverture d'évasion d'adulte, les emplacements roosting, et d'une manière plus importante les ressources de nourriture. Interspersion des ressources d'habitat peut être accompli par une combinaison des coupes sélectives, des coupes d'espace libre, du feu prescrit, et de créer des lacunes de faible diamètre de verrière en tuant différents arbres. La gestion de moisson devrait être conçue pour maintenir des taux courants de moisson tout en fournissant des occasions de chasse de qualité. Nous définissons la chasse de qualité en tant que la basse pression de chasse, le bas trafic de véhicule, et taux affleurants de haute. La gestion de chasse à qualité peut être accomplie par l'utilisation des fermetures de route en même temps que la gestion d'habitat.

Brood cover is a critical component of ruffed grouse habitat during a period when chick mortality may be high. We compared microhabitat characteristics at ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) brood locations with random locations to determine characteristics selected by females with broods in the Appalachian region of Virginia and West Virginia. Females with broods used forested sites with a well-developed overstory canopy (>70%). These sites had a higher abundance of arthropods in the first 3 wk after hatch (P = 0.02), taller ground cover (P < 0.1) and higher percent ground cover (P < 0.1) in the first 6 wk after hatch than random sites. Total woody stem densities were not different (P > 0.1) between brood and random sites as has been found in several studies from more northern sites. Most management prescriptions for ruffed grouse brood habitat are based on increasing hardwood stem densities; our results suggest alternative habitat management techniques that promote ground cover, such as prescribed burning and forest stand thinning, may be more appropriate in the southern Appalachian region.

True metabolizable energy (TME) is a measure of avian dietary quality that accounts for metabolic fecal and endogenous urinary energy losses (EL) of non-dietary origin. The TME is calculated using a bird fed the test diet and an estimate of EL derived from another bird (Paired Bird Correction), the same bird (Self Correction), or several other birds (Group Mean Correction). We evaluated precision of these estimators by using each to calculate TME of three seed diets in blue-winged teal (Anas discors). The TME varied by <2% among estimators for all three diets, and Self Correction produced the least variable TMEs for each. The TME did not differ between estimators in nine paired comparisons within diets, but variation between estimators within individual birds was sufficient to be of practical consequence. Although differences in precision among methods were slight, Self Correction required the lowest sample size to achieve a given precision. Feeding trial methods that minimize variation among individuals have several desirable properties, including higher precision of TME estimates and more rigorous experimental control. Consequently, we believe that Self Correction is most likely to accurately represent nutritional value of food items and should be considered the standard method for TME feeding trials.

Several studies have demonstrated the negative effects of clearcutting on terrestrial plethodontid salamander populations. However, none has experimentally compared clearcutting with multiple alternative timber-harvest methods. Using a randomized, replicated design, we compared the short-term effects ( 1–4 years after harvest ) of clearcutting to effects of leavetree, group selection, and two shelterwood cuts on terrestrial salamanders in the southern Appalachian Mountains of Virginia and West Virginia ( U.S.A. ). Treatment plots were 2 ha each. We also compared salamander age class ( percent juvenile ), fecundity ( percentage of females carrying eggs and average number of eggs per gravid female ), size of gravid females, and species composition and diversity between treatments with canopy removal ( cut ) and those without canopy removal ( uncut ). All treatments with canopy removal had significantly fewer salamanders than the control treatment, but salamander abundances on alternative treatments with canopy removal did not differ significantly from salamander abundances on the clearcuts. There were no significant differences between cut and uncut treatments in the proportion of females that were gravid or in the average number of eggs in gravid females; however, gravid Plethodon cinereus females weighed more on the cut treatments and gravid Desmognathus ochrophaeus females weighed more on uncut treatments. There were no significant differences between cut and uncut treatments in the proportion of the sample that was juvenile, except in the largest species tested, P. glutinosus, which had a significantly higher proportion of juveniles in the uncut treatments. We conclude that initial declines in terrestrial plethodontid abundance caused by timber harvesting may be minimized across the landscape by concentrating high-intensity timber harvesting ( clearcutting ) in small areas ( a few hectares in size ).