Roland Mayrhofer’s research while affiliated with University of Regensburg and other places

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Publications (11)


The quantitative paradigm and the nature of the human mind. The replication crisis as an epistemological crisis of quantitative psychology in view of the ontic nature of the psyche
  • Literature Review
  • Full-text available

September 2024

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59 Reads

Roland Mayrhofer

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Isabel C Büchner

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Judit Hevesi

Many suggestions for dealing with the so-called replication crisis in psychology revolve around the idea that better and more complex statistical-mathematical tools or stricter procedures are required in order to obtain reliable findings and prevent cheating or publication biases. While these aspects may play an exacerbating role, we interpret the replication crisis primarily as an epistemological crisis in psychology caused by an inadequate fit between the ontic nature of the psyche and the quantitative approach. On the basis of the philosophers of science Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, and Imre Lakatos we suggest that the replication crisis is therefore a symptom of a fundamental problem in psychology, but at the same time it is also an opportunity to advance psychology as a science. In a first step, against the background of Popper’s Critical Rationalism, the replication crisis is interpreted as an opportunity to eliminate inaccurate theories from the pool of theories and to correct problematic developments. Continuing this line of thought, in an interpretation along the lines of Thomas Kuhn, the replication crisis might signify a model drift or even model crisis, thus possibly heralding a new paradigm in psychology. The reasons for this are located in the structure of academic psychology on the basis of Lakatos’s assumption about how sciences operate. Accordingly, one hard core that lies at the very basis of psychology may be found in the assumption that the human psyche can and is to be understood in quantitative terms. For this to be possible, the ontic structure of the psyche, i.e., its very nature, must also in some way be quantitatively constituted. Hence, the replication crisis suggests that the ontic structure of the psyche in some way (also) contains a non-quantitative dimension that can only be grasped incompletely or fragmentarily using quantitative research methods. Fluctuating and inconsistent results in psychology could therefore also be the expression of a mismatch between the ontic level of the object of investigation and the epistemic level of the investigation.

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Reasons for current lifestyle: percentage of participants who stated the appropriate reason as motivation for their current lifestyle. Error bars represent the standard error of the mean.
(Potential) Reasons hindering a vegan lifestyle: percentage of participants who stated the appropriate reason. Not all options were available for all groups.
Difficulty of giving up certain types of food for all participants (A) and disaggregated by groups (B). Error bars represent the standard error of the mean.
Communicative knowledge: percentage of correct answers.
Sources of information: percentage of participants who stated they consulted appropriate source. Error bars represent the standard error of the mean.
Psychological differences and similarities between vegans, prospective vegans, and vegetarians. Motivation, knowledge, vegan literacy – and cheese

April 2024

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141 Reads

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3 Citations

Introduction Although vegan and vegetarian diets and lifestyles differ significantly from each other, among other things, notably in their respective consequences regarding animal welfare and their ecological impact, vegans and vegetarians are often grouped together and usually compared to omnivores in psychological research. Considering that vegans and vegetarians often share similar motives for their lifestyle choices, namely animal and environmental issues, the question arises why similar motives lead to different conclusions and correspondingly different behaviors, most notably, of course, that vegetarians consume animal-derived foods such as cheese or milk while vegans do not consume animal-derived products (e.g., food, cosmetic products). This is why this study explored the psychological differences between vegans, vegetarians, and prospective vegans – the latter group being located in an intermediate, transitionary position. Focusing on the motivational, affective and cognitive components of dietary transition and participants’ adherence to eating patterns, reasons for said patterns, possible hinderances to becoming vegan, the role of participants’ social environments, and the impact of various misconceptions regarding the feasibility of a vegan diet in everyday life were all explored. Methods An observational study was conducted via online questionnaire (1420 participants). Results Significant differences were found between vegans, prospective vegans, and vegetarians, especially concerning their knowledge of issues pertaining to their respective lifestyles. Discussion The critical role of knowledge is invoked as an explanation as to why vegans and vegetarians display different behaviors although they share a similar motivation. Thus, in this study the concept of vegan literacy is introduced. Additionally, the distinctive role of cheese is explored, discussing possible indications of its potentially addictive nature and, consequently, the importance of cheese as a hindering factor for pursuing a vegan diet.


Illustration of the confounding variable “Memorization” in Karpicke and Blunt’s (2011) study. The terms used to describe the different learning strategy conditions, namely, “retrieval practice” and “concept mapping,” give the impression that only retrieval practice or concept mapping, respectively, were performed in each condition. However, in the so-called “retrieval practice” condition, participants not only performed a retrieval task but also an additional memorization task. By contrast, in the concept mapping condition, participants only performed a concept mapping task without any additional memorization of the learning material. The additional memorization task doubled the time participants spent memorizing the learning material for the later test in the retrieval practice condition. Note that the text the participants were to learn was available during the creation of the concept map but not during retrieval practice.
Illustration of the four learning strategy conditions. The “Retrieval Practice with Additional Memorization and with Additional Instruction ‘Recall as Much as Possible’ Condition” (RP + AM + AI) and the “Concept Mapping without Additional Memorization and without Additional Instruction ‘Incorporate as Much as Possible’ Condition” (CM – AM – AI) are exact replications of the conditions examined by Karpicke and Blunt (2011), i.e., RP + AM + AI = Karpicke and Blunt’s “retrieval practice condition”; CM – AM – AI = Karpicke and Blunt’s “concept mapping condition.” In the “Concept Mapping without Additional Memorization and with Additional Instruction ‘Incorporate as Much as Possible’ Condition” (CM – AM + AI), to control for the confounder of different instructions, participants were prompted during the creation of the concept map as well that the concept map should contain as many details of the text as possible. In the “Concept Mapping with Additional Memorization and with Additional Instruction ‘Incorporate as Much as Possible’ Condition” (CM + AM + AI), to additionally control for the confounder of additional memorization, participants were asked to memorize the material after the creation of the concept map as well. Note that the text that the participants were to learn was available during the creation of the concept map but not during retrieval practice.
Memory Performance. The proportion of correct answers for verbatim questions (A) and inference questions (B) is shown as a function of the four learning strategy conditions (Retrieval Practice with Additional Memorization and with Additional Instruction “Recall as Much as Possible,” RP + AM + AI; Concept Mapping without Additional Memorization and without Additional Instruction “Incorporate as Much as Possible,” CM – AM – AI; Concept Mapping without Additional Memorization and with Additional Instruction “Incorporate as Much as Possible,” CM – AM + AI; Concept Mapping with Additional Memorization and with Additional Instruction “Incorporate as Much as Possible,” CM + AM + AI). The violin plots show the probability density across participants; data points are plotted as dots. Center horizontal line markers show the medians. Box limits indicate the 25th and 75th percentiles. Whiskers extend 1.5 times the interquartile range from the 25th and 75th percentiles.
Illustration of the divergent rationalities underlying real-life learning and experimental research. Although the domains overlap, the focus of the questions asked is different: determining the optimal combination of cognitive processes (real-life learning) vs. determining the specific effect of isolated cognitive processes (experimental research). As shown on the right side, this problem may be obfuscated by the use of imprecise terminology. If the term “retrieval practice” is used to delineate a learning strategy which is actually a combination of retrieval practice and restudying, this may lead to results that may seem surprising and informative (e.g., “retrieval practice is better than restudying”) at first glance, although they are actually rather trivial (e.g., “retrieval practice plus restudying is better than restudying alone”). Consequently, potential implications for education drawn on the basis of experimental laboratory studies should be considered with caution as overemphasizing one factor or an oversimplified transfer to real-life learning may lead to already existing knowledge on learning being neglected.
Re-examining the testing effect as a learning strategy: the advantage of retrieval practice over concept mapping as a methodological artifact

December 2023

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134 Reads

Several previous studies appear to have demonstrated that studying with retrieval practice produces more learning than studying with concept mapping, a finding based on which an extended use of retrieval practice in educational practice was recommended. However, a closer examination of the methods used in these previous studies reveals a crucial confounding variable: Whereas participants in the concept mapping conditions performed a concept mapping task without any subsequent memorizing of the learning material, participants in the retrieval practice conditions performed not only retrieval practice but also an additional memorization task, which doubled the total memorization time. The present preregistered study examined whether the advantage observed in the retrieval practice condition over the concept mapping condition in previous studies was actually driven by additional memorization rather than by retrieval practice. While we replicated the previous finding that retrieval practice in combination with additional memorizing produces more learning than concept mapping without additional memorizing, this advantage of retrieval practice over concept mapping vanished when participants in the concept mapping condition, too, memorized the learning material after having created a concept map. These findings demonstrate that the assumed advantage of retrieval practice over concept mapping in fact represents a methodological artifact. Besides serving as a reminder of the importance of a solid methodology, the present study also illustrates the importance of using of an adequate terminology. Depicting a learning strategy condition as “retrieval practice” when the condition actually encompasses not only retrieval practice but also additional memorizing obfuscates the possibility that observed memory advantages may not be fueled by retrieval practice, i.e., the learning strategy as such. We conclude by giving an outlook on the ramifications of our findings for cognitive and educational psychology.


Errungenschaften: Historische und psychologische Perspektiven auf eminente Leistungen
Errungenschaften: Historische und psychologische Perspektiven auf eminente Leistungen

September 2023

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30 Reads

Eminente Leistungen unterliegen oft einer naiven und uneingeschränkten Heroisierung. Jedoch zeichnet eine genaue und kritische Betrachtung von Errungenschaften ein ambivalentes Bild, das eine differenziertere Beurteilung nahelegt: Errungenschaften und Fortschritte wurzeln in konstruktiven wie auch de-struktiven Persönlichkeitseigenschaften, Zielen oder historischen Kontexten und führen zu widersprüchlichen Konsequenzen. Somit verstärken Errungenschaften die konstruktiven wie destruktiven Potenziale des Menschen und spiegeln die menschliche Natur wider. Eine interdisziplinäre Autorengruppe reflektiert die Ambiguität in einzelnen Essays aus Perspektiven der Anthropologie, Geschichtswissenschaft, Kommunikationswissenschaft, Medizin, Philosophie, Psychologie und Soziologie.


Errungenschaften: Historische und psychologische Perspektiven auf eminente Leistungen
Errungenschaften: Ein Problemaufriss

September 2023

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57 Reads

Den testamentarischen Verfügungen Alfred Nobels zufolge sollen die von ihm gestifteten Preise an jene Personen vergeben werden, die im vergangenen Jahr der Menschheit den größten Nutzen geleistet haben. Wenn man so will, sind die Nobelpreise für Physik, Chemie, Physiologie oder Medizin, Literatur und Friedensbemühungen also eine Möglichkeit, eminente Leistungen und menschliche Errungenschaften auf künstlerischem, wissenschaftlichem und politischem Gebiet zu würdigen. Dass dem auch in der öffentlichen Wahrnehmung so ist, lässt sich beispielsweise daran ablesen, dass die Bekanntgabe der Preisträgerinnen und Preisträger, die traditionell zwischen Anfang und Mitte Oktober stattfindet, stets von großer medialer Aufmerksamkeit begleitet ist. Dabei wird in der Berichterstattung üblicherweise nicht nur aufgearbeitet, wer die Preisträgerinnen und Preisträger sind und unter welchen Umständen sie ihre Leistungen vollbracht haben, sondern auch, was genau ihr Wirken eigentlich so bedeutend macht. Gleichwohl ist nicht ausnahmslos alles Lob und eitel Sonnenschein. Immer wieder gibt es auch Kritik an der Vergabepraxis: War diese oder jene Leistung wirklich eine Auszeichnung wert? Hätten andere Personen den Preis nicht ebenso verdient gehabt? Wie sinnvoll und objektivierbar sind die Kriterien, die bei der Vergabe angelegt werden? Und warum werden die Preise überhaupt nur in den genannten Kategorien vergeben: Gäbe es nicht andere Disziplinen, die ebenfalls in den Genuss einer derartigen Auszeichnung kommen sollten? Mit solchen Fragen befinden wir uns bereits mitten innerhalb jenes Themenkreises, dem wir uns mithilfe des vorliegenden Bandes nähern möchten. Einer grundlegenden Zweiteilung folgend versammelt der erste Teil des Bandes dabei Beiträge, die untersuchen, welche gesellschaftlichen Rahmenbedingungen gegeben sein müssen, damit eminente Leistungen hervorgebracht werden können, beziehungsweise damit deren Hervorbringung wahrscheinlicher wird. Demgegenüber nehmen die Beiträge zum zweiten Teil eine Erkundung jener individuellen Eigenschaften vor, über die Personen verfügen, die eminente Leistungen hervorbringen. Dabei schwingt in beiden Teilen durchgängig auch die metatheoretische Frage mit, was eigentlich unter einer Errungenschaft oder einer eminenten Leistung verstanden werden soll und weshalb sich die Bewertungsmaßstäbe solcher Leistungen im Laufe der Zeit verändert haben.


Errungenschaften: Historische und psychologische Perspektiven auf eminente Leistungen
Über die Multidimensionalität von Errungenschaften: Versuch einer interdisziplinären Annäherung

September 2023

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7 Reads

Insgesamt ergibt sich aus der Auseinandersetzung mit Errungenschaften ein ambivalentes Bild: Einerseits ist es nicht möglich, eine umfassende und kohärente Definition zu geben, die alle als Errungenschaften betrachteten Fälle einschließt, beziehungsweise einen Aspekt herauszuarbeiten, der allen diesen Fällen gemein ist, da sich gezeigt hat, dass sich Errungenschaften in verschiedene Dimensionen einteilen lassen, die zum Teil Überschneidungen aufweisen, sich zum Teil aber auch widersprechen. Andererseits eignet sich der Begriff „Errungenschaften“, um – wie nicht zuletzt die Beiträge in diesem Sammelband zeigen – eine Klasse von Phänomenen zu beschreiben, die sich einander ähneln und in verschiedenster Weise Gemeinsamkeiten aufweisen. Somit bleiben zunächst lediglich drei abstrakte Aspekte festzuhalten, die wohl immer bei Errungenschaften zusammenkommen: Erstens ist es perspektivenabhängig, ob etwas als Errungenschaft gewertet wird. Zweitens ist damit immer – sei es implizit oder explizit – ein Vergleichsmaßstab verbunden, da eine Errungenschaft in irgendeiner Form ein „Besser-Sein“ beziehungsweise eine „Verbesserung“ impliziert. Drittens muss sich eine Errungenschaft auf etwas Erstrebenswertes beziehen, das seinen Wert außerhalb der Errungenschaft selbst hat. Wenn man beispielsweise die Etablierung eines Staates als Errungenschaft betrachtet, ist klar, dass man dieser Etablierung einen positiven Wert zuweist. Und wenn man die Entdeckung eines potenten Heilmittels – wie etwa Penicillin – als Errungenschaft sieht, wird dahinter Gesundheit als Wert sichtbar – andernfalls gäbe es schlicht keinen Grund, hier von einer Errungenschaft zu sprechen. Vor diesem Hintergrund wollen wir diesen Sammelband mit der Idee schließen, dass die Beschäftigung mit Errungenschaften nicht nur Aufschluss über die jeweils betrachtete Errungenschaft selbst bietet, sondern in unserer Herangehensweise, ja schon darin, was wir überhaupt und aus welchen Gründen als Errungenschaft betrachten, mindestens genauso viel über uns selbst als Fragestellende und unsere Welt aussagt.


Psychology as a historical science? Theoretical assumptions, methodological considerations, and potential pitfalls

March 2022

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185 Reads

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11 Citations

Current Psychology

The current condition of (Western) academic psychology can be criticized for various reasons. In the past years, many debates have been centered around the so-called “replication crisis” and the “WEIRD people problem”. However, one aspect which has received relatively little attention is the fact that psychological research is typically limited to currently living individuals, while the psychology of the past remains unexplored. We find that more research in the field of historical psychology is required to capture both the similarities and differences between psychological mechanisms both then and now. We begin by outlining the potential benefits of understanding psychology also as a historical science and explore these benefits using the example of stress. Finally, we consider methodological, ideological, and practical pitfalls, which could endanger the attempt to direct more attention toward cross-temporal variation. Nevertheless, we suggest that historical psychology would contribute to making academic psychology a truly universal endeavor that explores the psychology of all humans.


Die Psychologie der Jetzt-Zeit: Eine kritische Bestandsaufnahme methodischer Monokultur in der akademischen Psychologie

September 2021

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87 Reads

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6 Citations

psychosozial

Die gegenwärtige akademische Psychologie ist eine quantitativ-empirische Psychologie der Jetzt-Zeit. Das heißt, sie untersucht mit quantitativ-empirischen Methoden das Erleben und Verhalten von Menschen, die aktuell auf der Erde leben, und zwar in der Hoffnung, so etwas über die Funktionsweise des Menschen zu lernen. Wir zeigen erstens, weshalb sich die Psychologie entgegen diesem Selbstverständnis mehr mit der Geschichte des Psychischen auseinandersetzen sollte. Und wir arbeiten zweitens heraus, weshalb sich die Psychologie – gerade angesichts der Replikationskrise – hin zu mehr gelebtem Methodenpluralismus entwickeln sollte. Eine solcherart historisch sensibilisierte und methodisch diversifizierte Psychologie wäre – so unsere Hoffnung – besser in der Lage, der Komplexität menschlichen Erlebens und Verhaltens gerecht zu werden.


The Practice of Experimental Psychology: An Inevitably Postmodern Endeavor

January 2021

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1,885 Reads

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8 Citations

The aim of psychology is to understand the human mind and behavior. In contemporary psychology, the method of choice to accomplish this incredibly complex endeavor is the experiment. This dominance has shaped the whole discipline from the self-concept as an empirical science and its very epistemological and theoretical foundations, via research practice and the scientific discourse to teaching. Experimental psychology is grounded in the scientific method and positivism, and these principles, which are characteristic for modern thinking, are still upheld. Despite this apparently stalwart adherence to modern principles, experimental psychology exhibits a number of aspects which can best be described as facets of postmodern thinking although they are hardly acknowledged as such. Many psychologists take pride in being “real natural scientists” because they conduct experiments, but it is particularly difficult for psychologists to evade certain elements of postmodern thinking in view of the specific nature of their subject matter. Postmodernism as a philosophy emerged in the 20th century as a response to the perceived inadequacy of the modern approach and as a means to understand the complexities, ambiguities, and contradictions of the times. Therefore, postmodernism offers both valuable insights into the very nature of experimental psychology and fruitful ideas on improving experimental practice to better reflect the complexities and ambiguities of human mind and behavior. Analyzing experimental psychology along postmodern lines begins by discussing the implications of transferring the scientific method from fields with rather narrowly defined phenomena—the natural sciences—to a much broader and more heterogeneous class of complex phenomena, namely the human mind and behavior. This ostensibly modern experimental approach is, however, per se riddled with postmodern elements: (re-)creating phenomena in an experimental setting, including the hermeneutic processes of generating hypotheses and interpreting results, is no carbon copy of “reality” but rather an active construction which reflects irrevocably the pre-existing ideas of the investigator. These aspects, analyzed by using postmodern concepts like hyperreality and simulacra, did not seep in gradually but have been present since the very inception of experimental psychology, and they are necessarily inherent in its philosophy of science. We illustrate this theoretical analysis with the help of two examples, namely experiments on free will and visual working memory. The postmodern perspective reveals some pitfalls in the practice of experimental psychology. Furthermore, we suggest that accepting the inherently fuzzy nature of theoretical constructs in psychology and thinking more along postmodern lines would actually clarify many theoretical problems in experimental psychology.



Citations (5)


... Within the context of ED risk and the ecological and climate crisis, it is increasingly relevant to consider the rise of vegetarianism in response to the climate crisis (Mayrhofer et al., 2024), and how this may imply greater health risks as research suggests greater risk in developing orthorexia nervosa in lacto-vegetarians (Dittfeld et al., 2017;Parra-Fernández et al., 2020). Orthorexia nervosa, a proposed eating disorder (Hyrnik et al., 2016), is characterized by an obsessive preoccupation with consuming healthy or "pure" foods to the detriment of overall well-being and might correlate with eco-anxiety about food choices. ...

Reference:

Validation of the Italian version of the Eating-Related Eco-Concern Questionnaire: insights into its relationship with orthorexia nervosa
Psychological differences and similarities between vegans, prospective vegans, and vegetarians. Motivation, knowledge, vegan literacy – and cheese

... However, more and more voices are pointing out that unstable results in social sciences can also be a consequence of more content-related circumstances: For instance because the data is embedded in different historical or cultural backgrounds (Apicella et al., 2020;Hutmacher, 2022;Hutmacher & Mayrhofer, 2023) or because the "instruments" of data collection do not match the psychological quality of the research subject, for example by neglecting the reflexivity of the participants, which may, however, play a decisive role. This leads to the consistent demand that psychological research must start to "do justice to the psychological phenomena under investigation" (Teo, 2021cited by Hutmacher, 2023. ...

Psychology as a historical science? Theoretical assumptions, methodological considerations, and potential pitfalls

Current Psychology

... However, understanding the development of the psychological reality of the past could help to deepen our understanding of the present, which could also enable us to question and transform the current state of things (cf. Gergen, 1973; see also Hutmacher, 2022;Hutmacher & Mayrhofer, 2021;Muthukrishna et al., 2020). ...

Die Psychologie der Jetzt-Zeit: Eine kritische Bestandsaufnahme methodischer Monokultur in der akademischen Psychologie

psychosozial

... By manipulating an independent variable and observing its effect on a dependent variable, experimental designs provide more substantial evidence for causal relationships, which is crucial in understanding the mechanisms behind psychopathic behaviors (Mayrhofer et al., 2021). Additionally, experiments offer a controlled environment that minimizes extraneous variables, enhancing internal validity and ensuring that observed effects are attributable to the manipulation rather than other factors (Blanco et al., 2019). ...

The Practice of Experimental Psychology: An Inevitably Postmodern Endeavor

... At the same time, methodological problems have been intensively discussed in psychology since the 2000s, above all questionable research practices, i.e., practices that can be used to achieve significant results, from the exploitation of statistical aspects to make results significant, to non-transparent procedures to veil possible problems and present a found result as unambiguous, to the direct manipulation of data to achieve the desired result (for a summary, see O'Donohue et al., 2022). In psychology, the method-above all a quantitativeexperimental approach-is generally predominant and confidence in theories is often greater than in the methods, so that the unexpected outcome of an experiment is often attributed to errors in the method, so that instead of modifying or discarding the theory, attempts are made to change the method so that the result predicted by the theory is achieved (Eronen and Bringmann, 2021;Mayrhofer and Hutmacher, 2020). This fundamental focus on methodology probably led to the replication crisis being viewed primarily as a crisis of methodology, in particular of the statistical methods used, and accordingly the solution would also lie in improved statistical methods. ...

The Principle of Inversion: Why the Quantitative-Empirical Paradigm Cannot Serve as a Unifying Basis for Psychology as an Academic Discipline