Robert W. Proctor's research while affiliated with Purdue University and other places
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Publications (576)
This paper presents a comprehensive review of and searchable database of statistical power analysis tools.
The black hole illusion (BHI) is a subtype of spatial disorientation that can result in fatal consequences in aviation. Research on the BHI has generally focused on altitude deviation, and few studies have examined the effect across different flight phases. In a simulation-based experiment, 18 participants performed 12 simulated approach and landin...
As an essential component of the human attention system, the effect of phasic alertness refers to the change of performance with the presence of a preceding warning signal. Weinbach and Henik (Cognition, 133 (2), 414-419, 2014) argued that phasic alertness is an adaptive mechanism that diverts attention to salient events. This mechanism enhances se...
Traffic accidents are one main cause of human fatalities in modern society. With the fast development of connected and autonomous vehicles (CAVs), there comes both challenges and opportunities in improving traffic safety on the roads. While on-road tests are limited due to their high cost and hardware requirements, simulation has been widely used t...
When participants respond to a task-relevant stimulus attribute by pressing a left or right key with the respective index finger, reaction time is shorter if task-irrelevant left-right stimulus location corresponds to that of the response key than if it does not. For right-handers, this Simon effect is larger for right-located than left-located sti...
During the transition period when connected and automated vehicles (CAVs) and human-driven vehicles (HDVs) coexist on the roadway, miscommunication and improper interactions may lead to accidents due to lack of awareness of each other’s intentions. The most promising approach to this problem is to view roadway transportation as a cyber-physical-soc...
Han and Proctor (2022a, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 75[4], 754-764) reported that in a visual two-choice task, compared with a no-warning condition, a neutral warning tone caused shorter reaction times (RTs) but at the expense of an increase in error percentages (a speed-accuracy trade-off) at a constant 50-ms foreperiod but short...
Anthropomorphic appearance is a key factor to affect users’ attitudes and emotions. This research aimed to measure emotional experience caused by robots’ anthropomorphic appearance with three levels – high, moderate, and low – using multimodal measurement. Fifty participants’ physiological and eye-tracker data were recorded synchronously while they...
Connected and automated vehicles (CAVs) offer many potential advantages, including improved traffic flow, reduction of traffic accidents, and increased freedom for adolescents and adults with restricted mobility. However, successful implementation of CAVs depends on several factors, especially acceptance and preferences by people. Specifically, dur...
The U.S. Census and the related American Community Survey (ACS) are used for studies of many types by researchers in a variety of domains. The U.S. Census Bureau discovered that the methods intended to preserve the privacy of individuals used for the 2010 survey were not adequate. Thus, a decision was made to apply differential privacy (DP) to the...
Globally, adults aged 65 and older are a rapidly-growing population. Aging is associated with declines in perceptual, cognitive, and physical abilities, which often creates challenges in completing daily activities, such as driving. Autonomous vehicles (AVs) promise to provide older adults one way to maintain their mobility and independence. Howeve...
Simulators for hydraulic excavators and other construction equipment provide tools for evaluating training methods and designs. Excavators are operated by left and right joysticks, which require coordinated movements to control the implement skillfully. Manufacturers use one of two control patterns: Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), for which...
In an information-overloaded Internet environment, users make rapid evaluations of webpages after just short exposures to them. Hence, a method is needed to identify automatic and rapid visual attentionAttention to webpages. Neuroergonomics methods can be used to help identify automatic and rapidly deployed visual attentionAttention by measuringMea...
In the early decades of the twelfth century, Psychologische Forschung was primarily an outlet for researchers from the school of Gestalt psychology. Otto Selz, whose views were closer to those adopted in the cognitive/information-processing revolution in psychology that began in the 1950s, never published in Psychologische Forschung. However, his w...
The framework of binding and retrieval in action control (BRAC) by Frings et al. (2020) proposed that repetition of any element in the previous trial triggers the retrieval of other elements in the same event file. Consistent with this framework, Los et al. (2014) argued that the temporal relation between the warning signal and the target stimulus...
Two-choice reaction tasks for which stimuli differ on irrelevant and relevant dimensions (e.g., Simon, flanker, and Stroop tasks) show congruency effects. The diffusion model for conflict tasks (DMC) has provided a quantitative account of the mechanisms underlying decisions in such conflict tasks, but it has not been applied to the congruency seque...
A warning signal preceding an imperative stimulus by a certain foreperiod can accelerate responses (foreperiod effect). When foreperiod is varied within a block, the foreperiod effect on reaction time (RT) is modulated by both the current and the prior foreperiods. Using a non-aging foreperiod distribution in a simple-reaction task, Capizzi et al....
E. J. (John) Capaldi (1928–2020) made numerous contributions to experimental psychology in his long career at the University of Texas at Austin and Purdue University. He was a pioneer in the area of animal learning and cognition, known for his sequential theory of partial reinforcement extinction effects. His research in this area and in memory and...
Work-from-home (WFH) influences both work and life, and further impacts family relationships. The current study explored the impacts of WFH on family relationships during the COVID-19 pandemic and identified effective adaptive processes for maintaining family relationships under WFH. Using the Vulnerability-Stress-Adaptation (VSA) model, the study...
Proper communication is key to the adoption and implementation of differential privacy (DP). However, a prior study found that laypeople did not understand the data perturbation processes of DP and how DP noise protects their sensitive personal information. Consequently, they distrusted the techniques and chose to opt out of participating. In this...
The black hole illusion (BHI) refers to when a pilot misperceives the physical relation between the runway and plane, and therefore makes an incorrect flight adjustment during landing. Although this illusion has been reported for many years, cognitive psychologists and ergonomists have tended to neglect it. This paper reviews the current state of B...
According to ideomotor theory, we select actions by recalling and anticipating their sensory consequences, that is, their action effects. Compelling evidence for this theory comes from response–effect compatibility (REC) experiments, in which a response produces an effect with which it is either compatible or incompatible. For example, pressing a l...
Users’ first impressions of a website have a great impact on their subsequent behaviors and attitudes toward the website. Visual complexity and order are two key factors of webpage design that influence users’ first impressions of webpages. Consequently, we investigated those factors in the present study, using an event-related potential (ERP) tech...
Adults age 65 years and older have become the fastest-growing age group worldwide. Many older individuals experience
difficulties in performing common activities of daily living, such as driving. Autonomous vehicle (AV) technologies may
enable older adults to maintain their mobility and independence. However, some studies suggest that older adults...
In the article, "Leveraging Human-Centered Design to Implement Modern Psychological Science," Lyon et al. (2020) presented a case for human-centered design without noting that this has been the focus of Division 21, Applied Experimental and Engineering Psychology, since its founding in 1957. Once acquainted with the work and expertise of Division 2...
We proposed a method employing deep learning (DL) on eye-tracking data and applied this method to detect intentions to use apparel websites that differed in factors of depth, breadth, and location of navigation. Results showed that users’ intentions could be predicted by combining a deep neural network algorithm and metrics recorded from an eye-tra...
This chapter highlights components of web design and evaluation for human factors and ergonomics. Several basic types of websites are commonly encountered: information dissemination, portal, social networking/community, search, e-commerce, company information, and entertainment. Websites should be designed with the end users in mind at all times be...
This chapter reviews some of the major findings, principles, and theories concerning selection and control of action that are relevant to designing for human use. Choice reaction time methods can be used not only to examine action selection for single-task performance but also for conditions in which two or more task sets must be maintained, and th...
The collaborative ability to coordinate an individual with others is critical to performance of joint actions. Prior studies found that different types of interpersonal situations have more or less impact on the collaborative ability of joint actions, but the results are controversial. To clarify the influence of interpersonal situations on collabo...
When orientation of a horizontal spoon image varies to the left or right, instructions can map left and right keypresses to the tip or handle location. We conducted Experiment 1 to determine whether practice with an incompatible mapping of the salient tip transfers to a test session in which the relevant part and/or mapping are changed. Participant...
This study investigates how an anthropomorphic app icon affects users' responses from an emotional standpoint. The design is a case-study/laboratory experiment in which 50 participants evaluated a commercially available weather app icon that had facial features (with an anthropomorphic appearance) and the same app icon but without the facial 2 Y. C...
Posner et al. (1973) reported that, at short fixed foreperiods, a neutral warning tone reduced reaction times (RTs) in a visual two-choice task while increasing error rates for both spatially compatible and incompatible stimulus-response mappings. Consequently, they concluded that alertness induced by the warning does not affect the efficiency of i...
The outbreak of COVID-19 at the beginning of 2020 resulted in a global impact on higher education. This instant change in the research, teaching, and training environment from on-campus to online influenced the “Research Experience in Psychology” courses offered by Purdue’s Department of Psychological Sciences. We report results of a survey of facu...
Icon color and icon border shape are two key factors that affect search efficiency and user experience but have previously been studied separately. This study aimed to ascertain their separate and combined effects on smartphone interfaces. We conducted an experiment using eye tracking in addition to performance and experience measures to understand...
Objective
The goal of this study was to examine the relation between users’ reported risk concerns and their choice behaviors in a mobile application (app) selection task.
Background
Human users are typically regarded as the weakest link in cybersecurity and privacy protection; however, it is possible to leverage the users’ predilections to increa...
Two experiments examined whether the location-based Simon effect and word- or arrow-based Simon effects, and their interaction, emerge in the same task situations by presenting location words 左 and 右 (left and right, Experiment 1) or single-headed arrows (left and right pointing, Experiment 2) in the left–right visual field. These tasks include two...
A priori power analyses have become increasingly popular in scientific communities, but the practice has not been widely discussed by HFE researchers. Given the complexity of conducting such analyses, software tools are essential. We review the emergence and current state of power analysis software tools, and use the concept of User-Centered Design...
The Simon effect is a stimulus-response compatibility effect in which the spatial dimension of the stimulus is task-irrelevant. This effect is often larger in reaction time (RT) for the stimulus located on the dominant-hand side of participants, for most of which it is the right hand, due to dominant-hand keypress responses being faster than non-do...
We investigated the impact of color salience and location of a website link on users' performance, affective experiences and approach-avoidance tendencies with 10 mock mobile Web directories. Task completion times were recorded by a computer program, and users' affective experiences and approach-avoidance responses were reported in questionnaires....
This study tested the hypothesis that affordances for grasping with the corresponding hand are activated more strongly by three-dimensional (3D) real objects than by two-dimensional (2D) pictures of the objects. In Experiment 1, participants made left and right keypress responses to the handle or functional end (tip) of an eating utensil using comp...
Training of surgeons is essential for safe and effective use of robotic surgery, yet current assessment tools for learning progression are limited. The objective of this study was to measure changes in trainees' cognitive and behavioral states as they progressed in a robotic surgeon training curriculum at a medical institution. Seven surgical train...
Charles Eriksen and colleagues conducted influential visual-search experiments with circular arrays for which the responses were either vocal naming or unimanual left-right switch movements. These methods have the advantages of the stimuli being equidistant from a centered fixation point and allowing study of visual selection and response selection...
Technological advances have led to an abundance of widely available data on every aspect of life today. Psychologists today have more information than ever before on human cognition, emotion, attitudes, and behavior. Big Data in Psychological Research addresses the opportunities and challenges that this data presents to psychological researchers. T...
A left or right keypress response to a relevant stimulus attribute (e.g., color) is faster when irrelevant left or right stimulus-location information corresponds with the correct response than when it does not. This phenomenon, known as the Simon effect, is obtained not only for physical locations, but also location words “left” and “right” and le...
People encouraged to think about their survival when encoding information experience a memory advantage even when compared to other tried-and-true methods. Despite the evidence in support of the survival-processing advantage, how this advantage might apply to current-day issues has received little attention. This study aimed to determine if passwor...
Schlaghecken, F., Blagrove, E., Mantantzis, K., Maylor, E. A., & Watson, D. G. [(2017). Look on the bright side: Positivity bias modulates interference effects in the Simon task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 146(6), 763–770] found larger spatial Simon effects for happy than sad faces. Unexpectedly, this enhancement was also observed...
Many studies of ballpoint pens have been conducted. However, those studies have not considered the emotional factors that can enhance user experience. Styluses resemble ballpoint pens in many ways, which are widely available in a variety of styles. Therefore, in the present study, we explored the physical and emotional attributes that improve user...
For the vertical Simon task, in which stimuli and responses are arrayed along the vertical dimension and stimulus location is irrelevant, a Simon effect (benefit for stimulus-response correspondence) is typically obtained. Results have been mixed about whether performing fewer than 100 trials of a spatially incompatible mapping prior to a Simon tas...
Amelia Earhart and Lillian Gilbreth are well-known for their accomplishments during the 20th century in aviation and industrial management, respectively. Both were outspoken advocates of women having professional careers during a time when that was uncommon. For these reasons, in 1935, Edward C. Elliott, then president of Purdue University, hired E...
James J. Gibson, the founder of ecological psychology, introduced a radical empiricist approach to perception and action centered on direct perception in naturalistic environments that was counter to popular representational views of his time. This direct perception approach and the associated introduction of the affordance concept have been extrem...
The password creation and management process presents a problem for users as secure passwords are not often very memorable, and memorable passwords are rarely secure (Adams & Sasse, 1999). Given that passwords are currently the dominant authentication method and that this situation is unlikely to change in the near future, it is imperative to conti...
The location-, word-, and arrow-based Simon effects are usually attributed to the result of a direct route (the spatially corresponding stimulus–response association, activated automatically) that interferes with an indirect route (the association of task-relevant information and response, activated in accordance with the instructed stimulus–respon...
According to the body-specificity hypothesis, people will associate positive and negative emotional valence with the relative fluency of the left or right responding hand. Prior studies have shown that temporary changes in the fluency of the responding hand can influence the association of emotional valence with left or right, even under circumstan...
In task switching studies, response repetition effects are typically obtained: When the task repeats, response repetitions are faster than response switches (response repetition benefit), but when the task switches, the opposite is found (response repetition cost). Previously, it was found that spatial response distance [RD] affected the response r...
Task-irrelevant stimulus location can influence the response performance to task-relevant attributes, generating the location-based Simon effect. Using a Monte Carlo study and other methods, we examined whether the ex-Gaussian distribution provides a good fit to empirical reaction time (RT) distributions in the Simon task and whether reliable Simon...
A believable virtual character is able to interact with the audience emotionally. To achieve believability, every component of the character from its movement to appearance must be designed carefully so that the character will elicit emotional responses such as empathy and sympathy from the viewers. However, to date, few studies have investigated w...
Many models of the Simon effect assume that categorical spatial representations underlie the phenomenon. The present study tested this assumption explicitly in two experiments, both of which involved eight possible spatial positions of imperative stimuli arranged horizontally on the screen. In Experiment 1, the eight stimulus locations were marked...
Real-world problems are not confined to a single discipline. Multidisciplinary team research combines the methods and theories from different disciplines to achieve a common goal. It fosters collaboration among researchers with different expertise, which can lead to novel solutions and new discoveries that could not be achieved otherwise. This spec...
Objective::
To determine whether response-effect (R-E) compatibility or stimulus-response (S-R) compatibility is more critical for touchless gesture responses.
Background::
Content on displays can be moved in the same direction (S-R incompatible but R-E compatible) or opposite direction (S-R compatible but R-E incompatible) as the touchless gest...
Three experiments used compatible and incompatible mappings of images of eating utensils to test the hypothesis that these images activate affordances for grasping with the corresponding hand when the required response is a key-press. In Experiment 1, stimuli were photographs of a plastic spoon oriented on the horizontal axis, with the handle locat...
Objective:
Evaluate the effectiveness of training embedded within security warnings to identify phishing webpages.
Background:
More than 20 million malware and phishing warnings are shown to users of Google Safe Browsing every week. Substantial click-through rate is still evident, and a common issue reported is that users lack understanding of t...
Lamiell presents a case that differential psychology (the study of individual differences) and experimental psychology should properly be classified as a form of demography (psychodemography) rather than psychology. He indicates that individual differences pertain to correlations in a population and maintains that mainstream psychology misinterpret...
Task parameters still affect reaction times even when all necessary information for executing an action is presented prior to a Go signal to execute the action. Hypotheses in terms of short-term memory capacity, residual activation, and a separate motor-programming stage have been suggested to explain what can and cannot be prepared prior to a dela...
The current Android app store requires users to search for information on the permissions requested by mobile apps. The present study sought to determine if safety priming, a manipulation shown to be effective in promoting safer app selections, would push users to look for safety-related information in the form of safety rankings when it was not re...
The information age can be dated to the work of Norbert Wiener and Claude Shannon in the 1940s. Their work on cybernetics and information theory, and many subsequent developments, had a profound influence on reshaping the field of psychology from what it was prior to the 1950s. Contemporaneously, advances also occurred in experimental design and in...
Android 5 informs users of all permissions requested when downloading an app and gives users an all-or-nothing acceptance decision to make for the permissions. In contrast, Android 6 informs users of each permission upon first use of the downloaded app. We conducted an online study with participants recruited through Amazon Mechanical Turk to compa...
Mobile apps have the potential to request access to private information. Given the far-reaching negative consequences that misuse of this kind of information can lead to, interventions that may encourage safer app downloading behaviors need to be investigated. Participants were recruited through a crowdsourcing service to participate in two separat...
Communicating cybersecurity risks to mobile-device users is essential. However, existing means of conveying the risks through detailed permission lists are ineffective. Risk indexes that convey overall risk are effective at influencing app-selection decisions, but many users want more information. We examined how users assess the risks associated w...
Bruce Bridgeman and colleagues reported the first experiments providing evidence of two functionally distinct visual-processing systems. We summarize that work and subsequent research that resulted in modifications of this view. Then, we describe studies of stimulus-response correspondence effects that provide evidence for distinct representations...
The “Internet of things” (IoT) refers to Internet-enabled technologies designed to increase the efficiency of users’ lives by communicating with other objects and elements in a system. The growth in these interconnected devices has been matched with increases in the use and aggregation of data collected by vendors or third parties. The number of ha...
How the human user trusts and interacts with an automation system is influenced by how well the system capabilities are conveyed to the user. When interacting with the automation system, the user can obtain the system reliability information through an explicit description of the reliability or through experiencing the system over time. The term de...
Conde et al. (Exp Brain Res 233:3313–3321, 2015) found that the Simon effect for vertically arrayed stimuli and responses was reduced after 100 prior practice trials with an incompatible mapping of the stimulus locations and responses. This finding was contrary to Vu’s (Mem Cognit 35:1463–1471, 2007) finding of no transfer effect with 72 trials of...
The ability to use instructions to prepare for upcoming events is a characteristic that humans uniquely developed. This cornerstone ability is evident in abundant prior studies, yet the exact role that instructions play in action control is unclear. We start with a survey of literature on instructions and action control, as well as the role that in...
Task-irrelevant spatial information, conveyed by stimulus location, location word, or arrow direction, can influence the response to task-relevant attributes, generating the location-, word-, and arrow-based Simon effects. We examined whether different mechanisms are involved in the generation of these Simon effects by fitting a mathematical ex-Gau...
Citations
... While co-simulation platforms have been used to study single autonomous vehicles and pedestrian-vehicle interactions, there is a lack of research on multi-player online driving [64,65]. Existing platforms often focus on simulating driving for a single vehicle and pedestrian simulation platforms lack support from traffic simulation software. ...
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... Результаты показали, что среднеантропоморфные роботы вызывают больше положительных эмоций, чем высоко-и низкоантропоморфные роботы. Слишком много или слишком мало человеческих или машинных функций могут испортить положительные эмоции пользователей [20]. ...
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... Kinerja yang harus diperhatikan dalam sebuah website meliputi komponen halaman seperti: kenyamanan, desain situs, informatif, keamanan dan interaksi (Agustin & Koeshartono, 2014). Website harus di desain dengan selalu memikirkan pengguna setiap waktu karena website harus mendukung aktifitas pengguna (Vu et al., 2021). ...
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... Action relates more specifically to the selection and execution of responses (Proctor & Vu, 2021). Responses can be selected faster and more accurately when they are compatible with the stimuli than when they are not (Proctor & Vu, 2006). ...
... Haboucha et al. [7] found that AVs were more likely to be used by people with higher levels of education. This conclusion was again validated by the findings of Gaojian et al. [30]. ...
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... Through systematic experimental testing (e.g., Lewin, 1922aLewin, , 1922b, Lewin disproved several implications of the associative account and replaced it by a field-theoretical approach that put intentions, task instructions, and the translations of instructions into cognitive sets into the forefront. Proctor and Ridderinkhof (2022) address another legendary controversy: the one between Otto Selz, an important member of the influential Würzburg school (founded by Oswald Külpe, the supervisor of Ach, and Karl Marbe), and Kurt Koffka, proponent of the Berlin Gestalt school and co-founder of Psychologische Forschung. Selz was more concerned with the explanation of directed thinking than with action control, but he applied very similar principles as Ach. ...