Robert Rosenthal's research while affiliated with University of California, Riverside and other places
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Publications (114)
Experimental studies within the education field are rare. The current study used a random effects meta-analytic approach to examine the effectiveness of a teacher expectation intervention across different schools, grade levels, socioeconomic levels, ethnicities, and gender in terms of student mathematics achievement. Teachers were randomly assigned...
In this interview, we discuss my early uses of meta-analytic procedures, first to combine p-values and then to combine effect sizes as well. My interest in quantifying the magnitude and the statistical significance of the effect of interpersonal expectations probably grew out of the following: (1) a long-held interest in the concept of replication...
The ability to measure agreement between two independent observers is vital to any observational study. We use a unique situation, the calculation of inter-rater reliability for transcriptions of a parrot’s speech, to present a novel method of dealing with inter-rater reliability which we believe can be applied to situations in which speech from hu...
Interobserver reliability is a vital part of all psychological studies that use an observational methodology to address questions of human behavior. This article provides a brief review of some important points for clarity’s sake, as we believe the current treatment of these topics has become more a case of theory than of practice. In general, ther...
Reports an error in "Effect sizes for experimenting psychologists" by Ralph L. Rosnow and Robert Rosenthal (Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale, 2003[Sep], Vol 57[3], 221-237). A portion of the note to Table 1 was incorrect. The second sentence of the note should read as follows: Fisher’s ʐr is...
This book is really three-books-in-one, dealing with the topic of artifacts in behavioral research. It is about the problems of experimenter effects which have not been solved. Experimenters still differ in the ways in which they see, interpret, and manipulate their data. Experimenters still obtain different responses from research participants (hu...
This book is really three-books-in-one, dealing with the topic of artifacts in behavioral research. It is about the problems of experimenter effects which have not been solved. Experimenters still differ in the ways in which they see, interpret, and manipulate their data. Experimenters still obtain different responses from research participants (hu...
This book is really three-books-in-one, dealing with the topic of artifacts in behavioral research. It is about the problems of experimenter effects which have not been solved. Experimenters still differ in the ways in which they see, interpret, and manipulate their data. Experimenters still obtain different responses from research participants (hu...
This book is really three-books-in-one, dealing with the topic of artifacts in behavioral research. It is about the problems of experimenter effects which have not been solved. Experimenters still differ in the ways in which they see, interpret, and manipulate their data. Experimenters still obtain different responses from research participants (hu...
This book is really three-books-in-one, dealing with the topic of artifacts in behavioral research. It is about the problems of experimenter effects which have not been solved. Experimenters still differ in the ways in which they see, interpret, and manipulate their data. Experimenters still obtain different responses from research participants (hu...
This book is really three-books-in-one, dealing with the topic of artifacts in behavioral research. It is about the problems of experimenter effects which have not been solved. Experimenters still differ in the ways in which they see, interpret, and manipulate their data. Experimenters still obtain different responses from research participants (hu...
This book is really three-books-in-one, dealing with the topic of artifacts in behavioral research. It is about the problems of experimenter effects which have not been solved. Experimenters still differ in the ways in which they see, interpret, and manipulate their data. Experimenters still obtain different responses from research participants (hu...
This book is really three-books-in-one, dealing with the topic of artifacts in behavioral research. It is about the problems of experimenter effects which have not been solved. Experimenters still differ in the ways in which they see, interpret, and manipulate their data. Experimenters still obtain different responses from research participants (hu...
The effect size (ES) is the magnitude of a study outcome or research finding, such as the strength of the relationship obtained between an independent variable and a dependent variable. Two types of ES indicators are sampled here: the difference-type and the correlational (or r-type). Both are well suited to situations in which there are two groups...
This book is an updated text. It has new material on coding and methodological issues for a variety of areas in nonverbal behavior: facial actions, vocal behavior, and body movement. Issues relevant to judgment studies, methodology, reliability, analyses, etc. have also been updated. The topics are broad and include specific information about metho...
Chapter 18 explores methods of assessing the effect size of outcome research. It provides a sampling of ES indices in three general classes: the difference family (illustrated here by Cohen’s d, Hedges’s g, and the risk difference); the correlation family (including by the point-biserial r, and the phi coefficient); and the ratio family (illustrate...
High school students participated in a field experiment that tested the effects of exposure to early election returns in a nonpartisan referendum. On a pretest of attitudes, students stated their preferences on the issue of the school's grading policy. One week later, just before voting, subjects in the experimental condition received information a...
We investigated the joint and interacting effects of affect, sex, and nonverbal channel (face and voice) on the perception of physical attractiveness. In both studies we found that positive affects were rated as more attractive than negative affects, regardless of the channel (face, or voice). We also found that dominant affects were rated as more...
Twenty teachers each taught a male and a female student two different lessons. One of these lessons was in a stereotypically masculine domain (mechanics), the other in a stereotypically feminine domain (vocabulary). Judges viewed clips from the videotaped lessons and rated teachers' nonverbal behaviors. The students also rated their teachers on a v...
The effect of a nonverbal behavior frequently displayed during social interaction, self-touching, was analyzed with respect to body location, other nonverbal behaviors, and expressers' role. In Study 1, hypotheses about role (job applicant, medical patient, friend, stranger) and levels of anxiety and familiarity were substantiated. In Study 2, subj...
Detecting anxiety is essential both in help-giving settings such as psychotherapy and in everyday social relationships. This two-study experiment involved groups of observers who viewed and rated selected scenes from previously videotaped subjects’(expressers) descriptions of past emotional experiences. One group rated combined visual and auditory...
The present studies investigated the effects of target context on judge sensitivity to target felt rapport. The results suggest that judge sensitivity may be increased by: (a) positioning the target to the judge's left so that the judgment task may benefit from the specialization of the right hemisphere for processing nonverbal behavior, and (b) as...
This article addresses the criticisms that clinical psychology research is characterized by (a) generally disappointing results, (b) unreplicability, and (c) poor cumulation. Results are found to be quite encouraging when we (a) distinguish effect size estimation from significance testing, (b) clarify the interpretation of nonsignificant results, a...
EXTENDED ABSTRACT Imagine that as you read reviews of a celebrity's TV appearances , you are struck by how the reviews differ. On The Tonight Show the celebrity is seen as a leader, steering the interview. However, on Larry King Live she is seen as passive and as if bullied by Larry King. Your first inclination is to attribute the effect to the res...
Smith's article "On Construct Validity: Issues of Method and Measurement" is a fine tribute to L. J. Cronbach and P. E. Meehl (1955) that clarifies the current state and future directions in the understanding of construct validity. Construct validity is a dynamic process, and fit indices need to be used at the service of understanding, not in place...
This study examined the power of judges' ratings of professors' nonverbal (NV) classroom behavior in content-free brief instances
(nine seconds) to predict actual end-of-course students' ratings of teaching (SRT). Professors in 67 courses were videotaped
in 4 instructional situations: First class session; Lecturing; Interacting with students; and T...
Observers' ability to detect state anxiety and trait anxiety in others was evaluated in a meta-analysis that also included a critical moderator variable, communication channel. The overall effect size (r) for accuracy was .39 for the 46 state anxiety studies and .26 for the 34 trait anxiety studies. However, the effect of communication channel was...
The purpose of this article is to propose a simple effect size estimate (obtained from the sample size, N, and a p value) that can be used (a) in meta-analytic research where only sample sizes and p values have been reported by the original investigator, (b) where no generally accepted effect size estimate exists, or (c) where directly computed eff...
The present studies investigated the effects of dyadic context on judgments of nonverbal behavior associated with rapport. As predicted, the task performed by a dyad, the visible presence or absence of both dyad members, and the sex of the observer affected observer judgments of responsiveness, friendliness, dominance, critical scrutiny, polite sym...
Contrast analysis of repeated-measures data generally focuses on hypotheses when only 1 pattern of results is of theoretical interest. This article articulates a framework for contrast analysis in repeated-measures contexts in which researchers have hypotheses relevant to 1 potential pattern or multiple potential patterns of results. For example, a...
Can a few seconds of high school teachers' nonverbal (NV) behavior predict students' ratings of these teachers (SRT)? Yes, but NV-SRT relations varied among various instructional situations. NV behaviors while administering the class and using the board were unrelated to SRT. Positive judgments of NV behavior while disciplining the class and intera...
Construct validity is one of the most central concepts in psychology. Researchers generally establish the construct validity of a measure by correlating it with a number of other measures and arguing from the pattern of correlations that the measure is associated with these variables in theoretically predictable ways. This article presents 2 simple...
Contrast analysis is a way to evaluate theories efficiently and relatively easily, but despite its efficiency, informativeness, and simplicity, contrast analysis is rarely found in the research literature. We present and illustrate step-by-step outlines of contrast procedures for 4 basic kinds of analyses, and we highlight the ways in which they pr...
Interpersonal expectancy effects refer to the phenomena whereby one person's expectation for another person's behavior comes to serve as a self-fulfilling prophecy. The author examines the history and diversity of this area of inquiry, showing that the expectations of psychological researchers, classroom teachers, judges in the courtroom, business...
Two studies explored the link between health care providers' patterns of nonverbal communication and therapeutic efficacy. In Study 1, physical therapists were videotaped during a session with a client. Brief samples of therapists' nonverbal behavior were rated by naive judges. Judges' ratings were then correlated with clients' physical, cognitive,...
Interpersonal aspects of care, such as the communication behaviors of physicians, are often cited as central to patients' decisions to initiate malpractice litigation. Relatively little is known, however, about the impact of the communication behaviors of surgeons. In the current study, we investigated the relationship between judgments of surgeons...
The cumulation of evidence in psychology and in related disciplines has, in the past, proceeded in a narrative, nonquantitative fashion. Meta-analysis, the quantitative summarizing of research domains, has emerged as a more systematic, more replicable, and more rigorous approach to the cumulation of evidence. We provide a brief history of meta-anal...
In response to concerns described by H. N. Garb, J. M. Wood, M. T. Nezworski, W. M. Grove, and W. J. Stejskal (2001), the authors present the weighted and unweighted means and medians of the effect sizes obtained by J. B. Hiller, R. Rosenthal, R. F. Bornstein, D. T. R. Berry, and S. Brunell-Neuleib (1999). These indices of central tendency are pres...
To describe a systematic quantitative approach to assessing the predictions made by competing theories using contrasts and correlational indices of effect sizes.
We illustrate the use of the contrast F and t to compare and combine predictions when the raw data are continuous scores, and z contrasts when working with frequencies in 2 x k tables of c...
We describe the history and current status of the meta-analytic enterprise. The advantages and historical criticisms of meta-analysis are described, as are the basic steps in a meta-analysis and the role of effect sizes as chief coins of the meta-analytic realm. Advantages of the meta-analytic procedures include seeing the "landscape" of a research...
This chapter presents guidelines to help researchers avoid some common sources of confusion about statistical procedures, achieve a more thorough and accurate understanding of their data, and communicate research results more effectively. It discusses the general process of data analysis as well as specific procedures. This chapter has six major se...
This article describes procedures for presenting standardized measures of effect size when contrasts are used to ask focused questions of data. The simplest contrasts consist of comparisons of two samples (e.g., based on the independent t statistic). Useful effect-size indices in this situation are members of the g family (e.g., Hedges's g and Cohe...
Contrasts are statistical procedures for asking focused questions of data. Compared to diffuse or omnibus questions, focused questions are characterized by greater conceptual clarity and greater statistical power when examining those focused questions. If an effect truly exists, we are more likely to discover it and to believe it to be real when as...
Contrasts are statistical procedures for asking focused questions of data. Researchers, teachers of research methods and graduate students will be familiar with the principles and procedures of contrast analysis included here. But they, for the first time, will also be presented with a series of newly developed concepts, measures, and indices that...
Two previous meta-analyses concluded that average validity coefficients for the Rorschach and the MMPI have similar magnitudes (L. Atkinson, 1986; K. C. H. Parker et al, see record
1989-14153-001), but methodological problems in both meta-analyses may have impeded acceptance of these results (H. N. Garb et al, see record
1998-11225-011). We condu...
This research hypothesized that using simpler jury instructions would reduce jurors' reliance on judges' nonverbal behavior. Mock jurors were given either standard or simplified jury instructions, heard actual trial testimony, and then saw a judge reading jury instructions (i.e., a judge who had an expectation or belief of either guilt or innocence...
We describe convenient statistical procedures that will enable research consumers (e.g., professional psychologists, graduate students, and researchers themselves) to reach beyond the published conclusions and make an independent assessment of the reported results. Appropriately conceived contrasts accompanied by effect size estimates often allow r...
ABSTRACT Defensive individuals have been shown to differ from non-defensive individuals on a number of physiological and behavioral measures. We report two studies on observers' inferences of defensiveness, and the contribution of communication channels in the inference of defensiveness. Observers judged high and low state anxious segments of high...
This reply to Abelson (this issue) and Petty, Fabrigar, Wegener, and Priester (this issue) is couched within the framework of five basic principles advising that we (1) hang on to what we predicted long enough to test it (Tarzan's leap), (2) be wary of beguiling statistical designs that may not address the question of interest (the Sirens' song), (...
A common situation in psychological research involves the comparison of two correlations on the same sample of subjects, in which the correlations are nonoverlapping in the sense of having a variable in common (e.g.,
r₁₄ and
r₂₃ rather than r₁₃ and r₁₂). The classic statistic for this situation is the Pearson-Filon statistic, (
PF) which is based...
This paper discusses the concept of statistical power and its application to psychological research. Power, the probability that a significance test will produce a significant result when the null hypothesis is false, often is neglected with potentially serious consequences. The concept of power should be considered as part of planning and interpre...
This article extends the validity of politeness theory (P. Brown and S. Levinson, 1987) by investigating the nonlinguistic aspects of politeness in 2 cultures. Politeness strategies expressed through different channels of communication (silent video, speech, full-channel video and audio, and transcripts of speech) were examined, and it was found th...
The authors extend the usual approach to the assessment of test or rater reliability to situations that have previously not been appropriate for the application of this standard (Spearman-Brown) approach. Specifically, the authors (a) provide an accurate overall estimate of the reliability of a test (or a panel of raters) comprising 2 or more diffe...
This article offers some guidelines for interpreting and evaluating meta-analytic reviews of research. The fundamental goals of meta-analysis are to combine results across studies to yield an overall estimate of effect and to compare effects between studies in order to understand moderating factors. Suggestions are made for what readers should look...
"Beginning Behavioral Research" is intended for undergraduate students who, as part of a beginning course in research methods, are required to plan an empirical study, to analyze and interpret the data, and to report the findings and conclusions. It is also designed to encourage students to be analytical and critical not only in interpreting resear...
Empirical studies on nonverbal communication in clinician—patient interaction are reviewed for both the psychotherapeutic and medical settings. Nonverbal behavior is considered both as the consequence of antecedent variables, such as individual or relationship characteristics, and as a predictor of clinical effectiveness and patient outcomes. The c...
This research examined the role of personality, nonverbal skills, and gender as moderators of judging and being judged accurately in zero-acquaintance situations. Unacquainted participants, assembled in groups, completed a battery of personality tests, took 2 audiovisual tests (the Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity [PONS] and the Interpersonal Perce...
When interpreting an interaction in the analysis of variance (ANOVA), many active researchers (and, in turn, students) often ignore the residuals defining the interaction Although this problem has been noted previously, it appears that many users of ANOVA remain uncertain about the proper understanding of interaction effects To clear up this proble...
We introduce a new, readily computed statistic, the counternull value of an obtained effect size, which is the nonnull magnitude of effect size that is supported by exactly the same amount of evidence as supports the null value of the effect size In other words, if the counternull value were taken as the null hypothesis, the resulting p value would...
The accuracy of strangers' consensual judgments of personality based on "thin slices" of targets' nonverbal behavior were examined in relation to an ecologically valid criterion variable. In the 1st study, consensual judgments of college teachers' molar nonverbal behavior based on very brief (under 30 sec) silent video clips significantly predicted...
Tape recordings of mothers of 13 normal and 15 nonorganic failure-lo-thrive (NOFTT) infants talking about their infants were filtered to remove voice content and rated by female students, who scored them on 19 affect-related categories. Control mothers scored significantly higher on a composite variable termed “positive affect” compared to NOFTT mo...
A meta-analysis was conducted on the accuracy of predictions of various objective outcomes in the areas of clinical and social psychology from short observations of expressive behavior (under 5 min). The overall effect size for the accuracy of predictions for 38 different results was .39. Studies using longer periods of behavioral observation did n...
Provides simple but accurate methods for comparing correlation coefficients between a dependent variable and a set of independent variables. The methods are simple extensions of O. J. Dunn and V. A. Clark's (1969) work using the Fisher
z transformation and include a test and confidence interval for comparing 2 correlated correlations, a test for h...
This reply to D. L. Meyer (see record
1992-03999-001) explains again that cell means, although usually the result of greatest interest, should not be confused with interaction effects. Unless all main effects are 0, one cannot accurately interpret an interaction by plotting the cell means. To interpret an interaction, it is the residuals remaining...
Discusses models underlying the use of 1-sample effect size indicators that permit the comparison of effect sizes obtained from different multiple-choice studies by indexing all studies to the results that would have been obtained if there had been only 2 choices. The effect size indicator, the proportion index, (II), is based on a model implying t...
Our goal was to evaluate an effective method for inducing experimental anxiety which would (a) be personally relevant, (b) be based on ‘real-life’ anxiety and (c) require as little experimenter intervention as possible. Undergraduates varying in trait anxiety (STAI) were videotaped while describing a very anxiety-producing and a happy event from th...
We investigated the combined and interacting effects of positivity, dominance, sex, and three nonverbal channels on the perception of physical attractiveness. We found that positive affects were rated as more attractive than negative affects regardless of the channel (face and voice, as well as body). We also found that physical attractiveness in f...
Justification, in the vernacular language of philosophy of science, refers to the evaluation, defense, and confirmation of claims of truth. In this article, we examine some aspects of the rhetoric of justification, which in part draws on statistical data analysis to shore up facts and inductive inferences. There are a number of problems of methodol...
This article proposes a standard, easy-to-interpret effect size estimate for one-sample research. The proportion index (π) shows the hit rate on a scale on which .50 is always the null value regardless of the number of equally likely choices. The index π is useful in the design of one-sample research because it can guide the best choice of number o...
When interaction is claimed in a factorial arrangement, the results almost always require more detailed analysis than is typically reported in our primary journals. In reporting interactions, research psychologists have gotten into the habit of examining only the differences between the original cell means (the simple effects) instead of more prope...
The purpose of this article is twofold: first, to present the strategic advantages of focused over omnibus tests of statistical significance in counseling research and, second, to demonstrate the utility of interpreting the magnitude of the effect as a way of assessing practical significance (i.e., in addition to computing
p levels). Simple proced...
This study compared subjects' impressions of their conversational partners who either displayed or did not display self-touching. Previous reports have focused on self-touching as an indication of underlying negative affect. Subjects were individually videotaped in two separate S-minute conversations with two different confederates: One confederate...
Preface 1. Why contrasts? 2. One-way analysis 3. Two-factor studies 4. Wired-in, pre-analyses, multiples and proportions 5. Repeated-measures designs 6. Mixed sources of variance 7. Practical issues of computations 8. Measuring the benefits of contrasts 9. Conclusion: Abelson's perspective Appendices References Index.
85 psychologists completed questionnaires asking them to interpret
p levels of research findings. A mixed-model analysis of variance (ANOVA) and planned contrasts were employed to analyze the data. Factors included the between-Ss factors of topic importance (2 levels) and respondent experience (3 levels), and the within-Ss factors of significance...
Presents a general set of meta-analytic procedures for combining and comparing research results from studies yielding multiple effect sizes based on multiple dependent variables. These require, in addition to the individual effect sizes or significance levels, only the degrees of freedom in the study and the typical intercorrelation among the varia...
This study examined self-touching behavior in a simulated employment interview. Four male and four female interviewers each met with four applicants (four male and four female) under two different conditions of formality (informal and formal). Results showed that sex composition of the dyad, status within the dyad, and situational formality could d...
Family Medicine residents were videotaped in interviews with a new and a return-visit patient. Two coders recorded nonverbal behavior performed by the residents for two, one-minute segments of each interview. Categories of movement included: proxemic behaviors of distance, orientation, and trunk lean, and head, hand/arm, and leg/foot movement, faci...
Comments on the contention of T. A. Ryan (see record
1985-21808-001) that the purpose of statistics is to establish new facts that will contribute to the development of theory. It is argued that the primary role of statistical analysis is summarizing the current state of knowledge about scientific questions under study. The present authors do not...
The present study was designed to determine whether the technique used to control the semantic content of emotional communications might influence the results of research on the effects of gender, age, and particular affects on accuracy of decoding tone of voice. Male and female college and elementary school students decoded a 48-item audio tape-re...
Describes procedures, based on the Bonferroni inequality, for avoiding increases in Type I errors that typically occur when an increasing number of contrasts is to be computed. The 3 types of Bonferroni tests differ in the degree to which the planned contrasts are specified beforehand and the relative importance attached to each one. This system of...
Contends that decision models used to ensure cost–utility guidelines in research are insufficient because they fail to consider the cost–utility of
not conducting a particular study. It is suggested that those who argue that a given study is unethical and should be prohibited should be prepared to answer in ethical and moral terms for the conseque...
The relationship between physicians' b]ody movement and judgments of rapport was examined in this study. One-hundred eighteen observers rated physicians' b]ehavior on 14 bipolar scales assessing dimensions of empathy. Physicians' n]onverbal behavior was manipulated so that there were three levels of trunk angle (forward, straight, backward), two le...
Contends that when contrasts or other tests of significance can be ordered according to their importance, adjusted p values can be computed that permit greater power to be brought to bear on contrasts of greater interest or importance. The application of these ensemble-adjusted p values is explained and illustrated. (4 ref)
Outlined procedures for assessing the heterogeneity of a set of effect sizes derived from a meta-analysis, testing for trends with contrasts among the effect sizes obtained, and evaluating the practical importance of the average effect size obtained. These procedures were applied to data presented by J. S. Hyde (1981) regarding cognitive gender dif...
Procedures for comparing the effect sizes of 2 or more independent studies include a method for calculating the approximate significance level for the heterogeneity of effect sizes of studies and a method for calculating the approximate significance level of a contrast among the effect sizes. Although the focus is on effect size as measured by the...
Introduces the binomial effect size display, which displays the change in success rate (e.g., survival and improvement rates) attributable to a new treatment procedure. An example of the use of this method is presented. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Studies employing within-subjects designs may be compared with those employing between-subjects designs in a variety of ways. We discuss and illustrate the comparisons of variabilities, including within-condition variances and precisions as well as the comparisons of means and of mean differences. Our discussion emphasizes the importance of trying...
Citations
... (5), lub (6), gdzie: t -wartość statystyki testowej, n -liczba wszystkich obserwacji, df -stopnie swobody. Stosowanie tych wzorów może być przydatne głównie w sytuacji, kiedy porównywane grupy są równoliczne (Rosenthal, Rosnow, Rubin, 2000). Wymagane wartości uzyskamy podczas analizy testem t Studenta dla danych niezależnych, wykorzystując podstawowe pakiety analityczne, takie jak SPSS, Statistica czy Excel. ...
... But many psychological experiments do not seem to operate this way. For example, they are often used to shore up existing commonsense knowledge or preconceived facts and relationships about human nature already established prior to experimentation (e.g., Brannigan, 2004;Rosnow & Rosenthal, 1989). In PROMISES AND PERILS OF EXPERIMENTATION 6 fact, many classic social psychological experiments in the 20th century used experiments for such purposes, but still claimed to have offered a deep and elegant understanding of pressing societal problems and human nature. ...
... La revisión de estudios primarios refuerza estas conclusiones. La media de los valores del impacto se situaría en un efecto leve, y obtendría una gran variabilidad de resultados, desde magnitudes grandes [23] [24], hasta efectos nulos y estadísticamente no significativos [18] [20] [22]. Los estudios revisados documentan efectos positivos en las expectativas del profesorado en el área de matemáticas [18]. ...
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... They cannot go back and make these decisions themselves because they are no longer blind to each other's decisions. We know from Hiller, Rosenthal, Bornstein, Berry, and Brunell-Neuleib's (1999) meta-analytic review of the Rorschach that the complex decision making required in construct validity meta-analyses can result in significantly more disagreements between experts than one might assume. ...
... In contrast, physical movement and eye blinks can interfere with EEG recordings. Facial EMG measures provide a non-verbal index of motor mimicry that underlies empathic response, and have demonstrated concurrent validity with SRQs on empathy (Harrigan et al., 2008). Nevertheless, it is important to ensure that any motor mimicry recorded through facial EMG reflects empathic stimuli rather than other kinds of stimuli (Larsen et al., 2003). ...
... On the other hand, we 'exploited' (to use a McGuire term) the knowledge that people involved with or interested in an area (e.g. suicidality) would be more likely to volunteer to participate in research on the subject (Harris et al., 2009;Rosenthal and Rosnow, 2009). That increased participation allowed us to better examine study factors through improved statistical power (DeVellis, 2012;Rothman et al., 2012). ...
... A partial eta-square value of 0.14 and above indicates that it has a great influence (Cevahir, 2020;Karakaş, 2017). The obtained 0.16 eta-square value shows that 16% of the variance is explained by the independent variable (Rosnow and Rosenthal, 2008). ...
... In the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Reiss and Sprenger (2020) question the reachability of objectivity and see the final understanding of it as an ongoing project. As early as 1933, Rosenthal and Rosnow (2009;reprint) point out in their research the influences of human bias -subjectivity, to put it succinctly -on research findings. Recent state-of-the-art publications show that human bias significantly affects scientific results, even when we strive for objectivity in testing the same hypotheses and use accepted scientific methods to test them (e.g., Silberzahn et al., 2018;Bastiaansen et al., 2020;Schweinsberg et al., 2021). ...
... In the current study, specific patterns of results for different pairs of groups were expected according to the previous studies within a framework of cognitive load theory. To address each hypothesis, the contrast weights assigned to the two groups in each contrast retained the expected pattern and summed up to zero (Furr & Rosenthal, 2003;Rosenthal & Rosnow, 1985). For example, to address Hypothesis 1, a series of planned contrasts was conducted with different measures to compare each type of complexity-determined system pausing with the continuous presentation condition. ...
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... As a result, a substantial number of studies was published that addressed the need to suppress face-touching behaviors (Chen et al., 2020;Lucas et al., 2020;Senthilkumaran et al., 2020). Spontaneously touching the own face means that the person performing the face touch pays little or no attention to the initiation and execution of the sFST, and the accuracy of remembering this behavior is poor (Hall et al., 2007;Harrigan et al., 1987). Furthermore, there is no obvious motivation underlying spontaneous face touches, and they are not intended to serve communicative or social functions as active face touches do (Spille et al., 2021). ...
