Robert H. Lengel’s research while affiliated with The University of Texas at San Antonio and other places

The media richness model and the symbolic interactionist perspective are the basis for hypotheses about managerial communication patterns. The hypothesized relationships are tested with data from 94 managers. The results indicate that managers tend to select the face-to-face medium for highly equivocal communications and written media for clear, objective communications. This relationship is stronger for managers with higher level positions and higher performance evaluations, and is not significantly affected by managerial educational level, organizational tenure, sender/receiver orientation, or introversion/extraversion. The implications of the findings for organization design, communications, and manager performance are discussed.

This article proposes a new thesis about the role of individual differences in managers' media choice behavior. It argues that individual differences influence media choice only under conditions of low message equivocality. When equivocality is high, a “richness imperative” masks the influence of individual differences. Managers are compelled to use richer media to match the equivocality of the message. However, in low-equivocality situations, richness demands are lowered. Any medium is capable of carrying the message. Thus managers have more freedom to act on their preferences, and individual differences are more likely to influence behavior. The findings of an exploratory study provide some support for this theoretical notion. As hypothesized, the judging/perspective attitude, as measured by the Myers Briggs Type Indicator, influenced media choice under conditions of low equivocality but not under conditions of high equivocality. However, tolerance for ambiguity did not significantly influence media choice under either condition. Implications for future research and practicing managers are discussed.

present a conceptual framework for understanding the managerial choice process based upon symbolic interactionism / research linking appropriate media choice with managerial effectiveness will be presented / message equivocality and media choice / contextual determinants and media choice / symbolic meaning and media choice practical guidelines for managers / 1. send equivocal messages through a rich medium / 2. send unequivocal messages through a lean medium / 3. be a critical receiver / 4. use the medium for its symbolic message / 5. evaluate new communication technology carefully (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Symbolic interactionism is presented as a theoretical approach for understanding media choice processes during managerial communications. In an exploratory study, 65 managers from 11 organizations were interviewed about communication incidents involving face-to-face, telephone, electronic mail, and written media. Managers were asked the reasons they chose the particular medium. A content analysis of the reasons suggests that three factors influenced managers' media choices: (a) ambiguity of the message content and richness of the communication medium, (b) symbolic cues provided by the medium, and (c) situational determinants such as time and distance. The findings also indicated the diversity of media use in management communications, with face-to-face selected primarily for content and symbolic reasons, whereas telephone and electronic mail typically were chosen because of situational constraints.

A field study of middle- and upper-level managers was undertaken to explain managers' selection of communication media. The findings indicate that media vary in their capacity to convey information cues. Managers prefer rich media for ambiguous communications and less rich media for unequivocal communications. The data suggest that high performing managers are more sensitive to the relationship between message ambiguity and media richness than low performing managers. Implications for managers' use of information systems and electronic media are discussed.

A field study of 95 middle-level and upper-level managers was undertaken to explain top managers' selection of communication media. The findings indicate that media vary in their capacity to convey information cues, and that media richness is correlated with message equivocality. Managers prefer rich media for equivocal communications and less rich media for unequivocal communications. The data suggest that high performing managers are more sensitive to the relationship between message equivocality and media richness than low performing managers. Implications for managers' use of information systems and electronic media are discussed.

This paper answers the question, "Why do organizations process information?" Uncertainty and equivocality are defined as two forces that influence information processing in organizations. Organization structure and internal systems determine both the amount and richness of information provided to managers. Models are proposed that show how organizations can be designed to meet the information needs of technology, interdepartmental relations, and the environment. One implication for managers is that a major problem is lack of clarity, not lack of data. The models indicate how organizations can be designed to provide information mechanisms to both reduce uncertainty and resolve equivocality.

This paper argues that information processing in organizations is influenced by two forces--equivocality and uncertainty. Equivocality is reduced through the use of rich media and the enactment of a shared interpretation among managers (Weick, 1979). Uncertainty is reduced by acquiring and processing additional data (Galbraith, 1973; Tushman and Nadler, 1978). Elements of organization structure vary in their capacity to reduce equivocality versus uncertainty. Models are proposed that link structural characteristics to the level of equivocality and uncertainty that arise from organizational technology, interdepartmental relationships, and the environment.

A dilemma exists between technical information designers and students managerial information behavior. A richness model is proposed that uses the concepts of media richness and communication learning requirements to integrate the two perspectives. The concepts and model were tested in a four-stage research program, and they were generally supported. Managers tended to prefer rich, oral media when learning requirements were high and less rich, written media when learning requirements were low.