Robert Eisenberger’s research while affiliated with University of Houston and other places

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Publications (116)


Proposed conceptual model. Note. T1 variables were measured before COVID-19 and T2 variables were measured during COVID-19. Time interval for T2-T4 variables was approximately 1 month. The effect of perceived organizational support (T2) on T3 and T4 variables are tested in Study 2. Perceived organizational support and job satisfaction measured at T1 are controlled in Study 2. H = Hypothesis.
Interaction effect of SDI and perceived organizational intentions. (a) Moderating influence of perceived organizational intentions behind SDI for the SDI-POS Relationship – U.S. Sample (b) Moderating Influence of Perceived Organizational Intentions behind SDI for the SDI-POS Relationship – South Korean Sample Note. POS as a function of SDI and for-employees’ welfare. SDI = Social Distancing Initiatives; POS = Perceived Organizational Support.
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations – U. S. Sample (Study 1).
Regression Results – Main Effects and Interaction Effects of Social Distancing Initiatives and Perceived Organizational Intentions on Perceived Organizational Support and Job Satisfaction (Study 1).
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations – South Korean Sample (Study 2).

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Social Distancing Initiatives and Perceived Organizational Support: It’s the Intended Beneficiary That Counts
  • Article
  • Full-text available

August 2024

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365 Reads

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9 Citations

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Jake G. Messersmith

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Robert Eisenberger

Leveraging data on organizational social distancing initiatives (SDIs) this paper examines the link between SDI implementation and perceived organizational support (POS). The paper discusses and tests the intended beneficiary heuristic to help explain why and when employment practices may induce POS. We suggest that SDIs, involving various ways to separate employees to keep them safe, have the important secondary benefit of increasing employees’ perception that the organization cares about their well-being and values their contributions. Using the intended beneficiary heuristic we argue that such favorable treatment as SDIs relates positively to POS most when employees attribute their implementation to the organization’s concern for the welfare of employees. Results of two studies, a cross-sectional study with 121 employees in the United States and a longitudinal study with 103 employees in South Korea, indicate that SDIs were positively associated with employees’ POS, which in turn improved their job satisfaction (Studies 1 and 2), affective organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior (Study 2). The results also show that these relationships were stronger when employees perceived SDIs to be implemented to protect their welfare rather than as a means of protecting the organization.

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Figure 3. Study 3 results of structural equation modeling. Note. N = 260. Standardized path coefficients. Only statistically significant results are presented. All three outcomes were directly regressed on POS. To keep the simplicity of the model presentation, we did not show these direct paths in the Figure. The residual variance of extra-role performance at Time 2 was covaried with the residual variances of affective commitment and job satisfaction at Time 2, but the covariances are insignificant. Ã p < .05, ÃÃÃ p < .001.
Does Felt Obligation or Gratitude Better Explain the Relationship Between Perceived Organizational Support and Outcomes?

June 2023

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901 Reads

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9 Citations

Robert Eisenberger

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Xueqi Wen

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Dianhan Zheng

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[...]

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The employee-organization relationship (EOR) is a key component of organizational behavior. Researchers have consistently shown that employees who perceive that they are supported by their organizations (favorable EORs) tend to have positive attitudes and behave in a manner that helps the organization to reach its goals. For many years, the reciprocity norm (e.g., felt obligation) has been a widely accepted explanation for the EOR. Yet, despite calls to explore additional pathways, little work has examined other mediating mechanisms between favorable EORs and outcomes. We draw on the affect theory of social exchange to argue for the mediating effects of gratitude, felt obligation, and pride on the relationship between perceived organizational support (POS) and outcomes. Our results – from three field studies – show that (a) gratitude mediated the relationships of POS with extra-role performance aimed at aiding the organization, affective organizational commitment, and job satisfaction, (b) the mediating effect of gratitude was stronger than the mediating effect of felt obligation, and (c) gratitude made stronger contributions to extra-role performance and affective organizational commitment than did pride. We discuss theoretical and practical implications.





How Leaders Drive Followers' Unethical Behavior

June 2022

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353 Reads

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13 Citations

Journal of Management

Numerous organizational scandals have implicated leaders in encouraging employees to advance organizational objectives through unethical means. However, leadership research has not examined leaders' encouragement of unethical behaviors. We define leader immorality encouragement (LIE) as an employee's perception that their leader encourages unethical behaviors on behalf of the organization. Across four studies, we found, as hypothesized, that (1) LIE promotes employees' unethical behavior carried out with the intention to aid the organization (unethical pro-organizational behavior); (2) this relationship is mediated by employees' moral disengagement and the expectation of rewards; (3) LIE, via moral disengagement , enhances employees' self-serving unethical behavior; and (4) the relationship between LIE and unethical behavior is stronger when the leader has a higher quality exchange relationship with the employee and is perceived by the employee as having higher organizational status. Our set of findings contributes to an understanding of


Organizational-Level Perceived Support Enhances Organizational Profitability

March 2022

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2,329 Reads

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21 Citations

Journal of Applied Psychology

Although the importance of perceived organizational support on organizational outcomes has been highlighted in the literature, research is lacking concerning how organization-wide perceptions of support by employees (organizational-level perceived support [OPS]) may contribute to organizational performance. To address this critical deficiency in the literature, we extend organizational support theory to the organizational level and examine the influence of OPS on organizational profitability. We conducted two studies with samples of 224 and 96 organizations, respectively, in South Korea and found that workforce performance (Study 1) and workforce voluntary turnover rate (Studies 1 and 2) mediate the relationship between OPS and organizational profitability. Furthermore, we found that organizational financial slack resources moderate the effect of OPS on workforce performance. Specifically, the positive effect of OPS on workforce performance, and consequently on organizational profitability, was stronger when financial slack resources were lower. Financial slack resources, however, do not moderate the relationship between OPS and voluntary turnover rate. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings.


Conceptual model
The moderating effect of leader-member exchange (LMX) on the relationship between employee moral identity internalization and prohibitive voice. Note. The regression lines were plotted based on ± 1 SD around LMX mean. Simple slope test was significant for high LMX (p < .001), but not for low LMX
The moderating effect of workgroup moral identity symbolization on the relationship between employee moral identity internalization and prohibitive voice. The regression lines were plotted based on ± 1 SD around workgroup moral identity symbolization mean. Simple slope test was significant for low workgroup symbolization (p < .001), but not for high workgroup symbolization
Prohibitive Voice as a Moral Act: The Role of Moral Identity, Leaders, and Workgroups

June 2021

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130 Reads

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11 Citations

Journal of Business Ethics

Employees’ may view prohibitive voice—that is, expressing concerns about harmful practices in the workplace—as a moral yet interpersonally risky behavior. We, thus, predict that prohibitive voice is likely to be influenced by variables associated with moral and relational qualities. Specifically, we hypothesize that employees’ moral identity internalization—i.e., the centrality of moral traits in their self-concept—is positively associated with their use of prohibitive voice. Furthermore, we hypothesize that this association is stronger when employees enjoy a higher quality relationship with their leader (leader-member exchange). In addition, drawing on the literature on moral symbolism, we hypothesize that workgroup moral identity symbolization—i.e., the extent to which workgroup members symbolically display moral traits—moderates the relationship between moral identity internalization and prohibitive voice in a compensatory manner. That is, workgroup moral identity symbolization enhances employees’ use of prohibitive voice when employees’ moral identity internalization is low. Data collected from hospital employees and their supervisors and coworkers support these hypotheses. These findings suggest new ways to promote prohibitive voice and, thereby, protect organizational stakeholders from harmful behaviors.


Perceived organizational support (POS) across 54 nations: A cross-cultural meta-analysis of POS effects

March 2020

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744 Reads

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97 Citations

Journal of International Business Studies

The authors meta-analyze relationships of perceived organizational support (POS) with attitudinal and behavioral outcomes in Western (i.e., horizontal-individualistic) and Eastern (i.e., vertical-collectivistic) cultures. The social-exchange perspective suggests that POS effects are stronger in Western cultures because employees are more likely to see the self as independent and understand their relationship with the organization in terms of reciprocity. However, the social-identity perspective suggests that POS effects are stronger in Eastern cultures because employees are more likely to see the self as interdependent and are more attuned to organizational support as an identity-related cue. Addressing these competing hypotheses, meta-analytic results from 827 independent samples (n = 332,277) across 54 countries show support for both perspectives. In the West, POS was more strongly associated with social-exchange processes than organizational-identification processes. In contrast, In the East, POS was more strongly associated with organizational-identification processes than social-exchange processes. Overall, POS was more strongly related to job attitudes and performance in the East than in the West. Cultural differences in POS effects on attitudinal outcomes were found to be increasing over time. We discuss the implications of these findings for organizational-support theory and research.


Perceived Organizational Support: Why Caring About Employees Counts

January 2020

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3,415 Reads

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328 Citations

Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior

According to organizational support theory (OST), employees develop a general perception concerning the extent to which their work organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being (perceived organizational support, or POS). We explain OST and review empirical POS findings relevant to OST's main propositions, including new findings that suggest changes to OST. Major antecedents of POS include fairness, support from leaders, and human resource practices and work conditions, especially to the extent that employees perceive these as the discretionary choices of organizations. Among more recent findings, the average level of POS has modestly increased over the past three decades in the United States. Furthermore, POS appears to have stronger positive outcomes in Eastern cultures than Western cultures. Some additional promising recent areas of research on POS include trickle-down effects, POS of groups, and POS as relevant to creativity and innovation, positive emotional outcomes, and well-being. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, Volume 7 is January 21, 2020. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.


Citations (90)


... One of the interpersonal factors that were identified which contribute to the level of self-esteem is social support, be it from the organization, supervisors, or co-workers (Lee, 2003;Pierce & Gardner, 2004;. POS in particular has the capability to influence the OBSE as it fulfils the employees' socio-emotional needs to be accepted and appreciated (Eisenberger et al., 2004;Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). A study by Lee and Peccei, (2007) found that POS has a positive impact on OBSE among the bank employees in South Korea. ...

Reference:

The Mediating Role of Organizational-Based Self-Esteem in Perceived Organizational Support and Counterproductive Work Behaviour Relationship
Perceived Organizational Support
  • Citing Chapter
  • March 2004

... McMillian (1997) identified additional components of POS beyond respect and emotional support, including instrumental support such as training, information services, and necessary equipment provided by the organization to enhance members' competitiveness. Rhoades and Eisenberger (2002) expanded on the contextual dimensions of perceived organizational support (POS), positing that it encompasses the changes in the organization's attitude as perceived by employees in various situations, along with the degree to which the organization values individual contributions. By addressing this aspect, their work filled a significant gap in prior research, thereby enhancing our understanding of POS. ...

Perceived Supervisor Support: Contributions to Perceived Organizational Support and Employee Retention

Journal of Applied Psychology

... The results showed that students in rewarded conditions experienced greater self-determination and intrinsic motivation and, as a result, exhibited greater creativity in story titles compared with students in the non-rewarded condition. Eisenberger, Armeli, & Pretz (1998), have argued that rewarding individuals is a signal of good performance, and provides encouragement to the employee to continue exhibiting the behaviors that have been recognized. At the same time, the mere lack of providing a reward can signal to lower performing individuals that their performance must improve. ...

Can the Promise of Reward Increase Creativity?

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

... These needs demonstrate a regulation of the behavioral aspects of individual motivation (Ryan and Deci, 2000). In this context, motivation is understood as a factor that can be altered through intrinsic, extrinsic behaviors, or even by amotivation itself (Eisenberger et al., 1999). ...

Effects of Reward on Intrinsic Motivation—Negative, Neutral, and Positive: Comment on

Psychological Bulletin

... It ignores primary drives and splits reinforcement sensitivity into reward and punishment, with an additional fear-fight-flight component (Corr, 2008). Furthermore, distinctions between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation may be less clear if social reinforcement is considered a primary drive as other so-called extrinsic reinforcers (Cameron & Pierce, 1994;Delin & Baumeister, 1994;Eisenberger & Cameron, 1996;Ryan & Deci, 2000. These theories may prove meaningful in tailoring treatment for mental illness, as reinforcement sensitivity has been linked to risk for mental illness (Bijttebier et al., 2009). ...

Detrimental Effects of Reward

American Psychologist

... The employee‖s perception and feeling concerning the extent to which the employer cares about his well-being in general and career advancement, in particular, is pertinent (S Caesens & Stinglhamber, 2023;). This concern for employee advancement is a demonstration of the employer‖s concern which the worker perceives as organizational support (POS) (Caesens & Stinglhamber, 2023). Career progression as an intrinsic expectation of opportunities and advancement options compels individuals to join institutions (Patterson et al, 2021), and develop functional behavior of high performance and organizational commitment as well as corporate citizenship behavior. ...

Perceived organizational support
  • Citing Chapter
  • October 2016

... Sustainable leadership is frequently associated with a strong commitment to social responsibility, which leads to heightened feelings of belonging and responsibility among employees (Freire & Gonçalves, 2021;Iqbal & Ahmad, 2021;Liao, 2022). Consequently, employees take pride in being essential to the organization and adjust their behavior to meet its expectations (Eisenberger et al., 2023;Teng et al., 2020) to protect their reputation and identity. Hence, sustainable leadership can motivate employees to surpass their formal job roles and enhance their extra-role performance. ...

Does Felt Obligation or Gratitude Better Explain the Relationship Between Perceived Organizational Support and Outcomes?

... Previous research proved that participation had a positive relationship with perceived organizational support, both directly and mediated by perceived supervisor support (Reeves et al., 2012). The positive effect of participation on perceived organizational support could be explained using two perspectives, which were (a) norms of reciprocity, if organization provided more opportunity for middle managers to participate in decisions concerning them or their work, middle managers felt supported by the organization and in return middle managers considered giving more support to the organization; and (b) organizational support theory, individuals developed a general perception regarding how much the organization valued their contribution and cared about their well-being (Eisenberger & Stinglhamber, 2011). By using the social support theory, the relationship between middle managers and the organization could be reviewed from the middle managers' viewpoint. ...

Perceived organizational support—Today and in the future.
  • Citing Chapter
  • January 2011

... Against the backdrop of rapid development of higher education worldwide, scientific research has become an important responsibility and evaluation criterion for university teachers [1] . As the new force of scientific research in universities, the motivation of young teachers is of great significance for promoting academic innovation and enhancing the comprehensive strength of universities [2] . The organizational support theory provides a new perspective for understanding the research motivation of teachers, emphasizing how an individual's perception of organizational support affects their work attitude and behavior [3] . ...

Social Distancing Initiatives and Perceived Organizational Support: It’s the Intended Beneficiary That Counts

... Given the complexity of our model, we used the item parceling approach to obtain more reliable estimates (Landis, Beal, & Tesluk, 2000;Little, Cunningham, Shahar, & Widaman, 2002;Williams et al., 2009). Consistent with prior research (e.g., Asante, Gyensare, El Bouzidi, & Twumasiet, 2025;Chen et al., 2024;Mesdaghinia, Eisenberger, Wen, Liu, Lewis, Qiu, & Shapiro, 2023), we employed the item-to-construct balance approach to create three parcels as indicators for latent variables with four or more items by sequentially averaging items with the highest and lowest loadings. To illustrate this approach, we used TMX as an example, which comprises ten items, following the procedures outlined in Asante et al. (2025). ...

How Leaders Drive Followers' Unethical Behavior
  • Citing Article
  • June 2022

Journal of Management