Renée Street’s research while affiliated with University of Johannesburg and other places

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Publications (65)


Location of wastewater treatment plants in the City of Cape Metropolitan Municipality, Western Cape, South Africa.
Trends in SARS-CoV-2 RNA by wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) during the nine-week period of the 2022 and 2023 edition of the Two Oceans Marathon.
Trends in median SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater and clinical cases reported in the City of Cape Town during the 2022 study period.
Wastewater surveillance for SARS-CoV-2 during a mass sporting event in the City of Cape Town, Western Cape
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December 2024

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Renée Street

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Background Wastewater surveillance has become an important public health tool with numerous research studies indicating its potential for monitoring coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreaks. The aim of this study was to apply wastewater surveillance as an indicator for COVID-19 to monitor the impact of a mass sporting event in the City of Cape Town. The study compared the same event over 2 years (2022 and 2023). Methods Weekly grab wastewater samples were collected from wastewater treatment plants in the City of Cape Town, and quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction used to quantify severe acute respiratory syndrome 2 (SARS-CoV-2) RNA in wastewater. Results Our findings show a statistically significant correlation (rho = 0.68, p = 0.01) between clinical cases and concentrations of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater in the 2022 study period. During this specific period, a rise in clinical cases was observed 2 weeks after the event and the peaks in clinical cases coincided with the peaks in SARS-CoV-2 RNA level in wastewater. The study also found a statistically significant positive correlation (R² = 0.03, F (1,208) = 6.56, p = 0.01) between the SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater and the 2022 event of the marathon hosted in the city. Conclusion Due to the decrease in clinical testing and the country being a popular destination for mass gatherings such as sporting events, the results from this study indicate the potential of wastewater surveillance providing supplementary information to form part of public health risk evaluations for mass gatherings.

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Figure 2. Wastewater surveillance over a 12-month period including two COVID-19 waves. The box plots represent weekly sampling from 21 WWTPs presented in SARS-CoV-2 RNA copies/day/100,000 inhabitants × 100 billion (** normalized by design capacity flow and population).
Maximum SARS-CoV-2 RNA copies/day/100,000 inhabitants × 100 billion (normalized by design capacity flow and population) per wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) by COVID-19 wave.
One Year of Wastewater Surveillance in South Africa Supporting COVID-19 Clinical Findings Across Two Waves of Infection

November 2024

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40 Reads

Microorganisms

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has been an important tool for the detection of COVID-19 outbreaks. The retrospective analysis of COVID-19 data is vital to understand the spread and impact of the virus as well as to inform future planning and response efforts. In this study, we evaluated the SARS-CoV-2 RNA levels in wastewater from 21 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the City of Cape Town (South Africa) over a period of 12 months and compared the (inactive) SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA in wastewater between wave 2 (November 2020 to January 2021) and wave 3 (June 2021 to September 2021). The SARS-CoV-2 RNA expression was quantified in wastewater using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) by targeting the nucleocapsid (N) gene, and the resultant signal was normalized to the WWTP design capacity and catchment size. Our findings show that the maximum SARS-CoV-2 RNA signal was significantly higher in wave 3 than in wave 2 (p < 0.01). The duration of wave 3 (15 weeks) was longer than that of wave 2 (10 weeks), and the wastewater surveillance data supported the clinical findings, as evidenced by the two distinct waves. Furthermore, the data demonstrated the importance of long-term wastewater surveillance as a key indicator of changing trends.


A Comprehensive Review of the Occurrence, Distribution, Characteristics and Fate of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the African Continent

October 2024

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115 Reads

Chemistry Africa

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) represent synthetic organic compounds extensively utilized in a variety of domestic and industrial products due to their distinctive characteristics. Designated as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) by the Stockholm Convention, PFAS are recognized for their long-lasting presence, widespread prevalence, and adverse impacts on both the environment and human health. Recently, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) revised the guideline limits for perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in drinking water, setting them at 0.02 and 0.004 ng/L, respectively. Despite the global emphasis on the necessity for monitoring and treating PFAS in environmental media, there is a scarcity of information on PFAS studies in Africa. This gap may be attributed to a lack of modern laboratory facilities, weak governance, and the enforcement of environmental regulations. This study comprehensively reviews PFAS, focusing on key areas such as global guidelines and regulations, sources and distribution in the environmental matrix in Africa, characteristics, environmental fate, reported methods for sampling and analysis in Africa, and the role of government in the National Implementation Plan (NIP) on the continent. Additionally, the study offers recommendations and identifies knowledge gaps. In Africa, PFAS have been detected in various environmental compartments, including drinking water ranging from 0.03 to 200 ng/L, surface water ranging from 0.0254 to 788 ng/L, sediment ranging from 0.50 to 248.14 ng/g, wastewater ranging from 0.9 to 507 ± 257.6 ng/L, seafood ranging from 0.12 to 179.2 ng/g, sludge ranging from 0.01 to 0.098 ng/g, plants ranging from 0.160 to 29.33 ng/g, and indoor dust ranging from 1.3 to 69 ng/g. Notably, perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) are prevalent in samples from various environmental matrices across Africa. Reported sources of PFAS in African countries include municipal waste, hospital waste from medical equipment, discharge from industries, and wastewater treatment plants. Urgent attention is required from decision-makers and researchers in Africa to address PFAS monitoring, regulation, and treatment within the continent. Graphical abstract




Prevalence Ratios (PR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for those who reported within a walking time of 15 min to the nearest public green space [reference group: >15 min] with increasing degree of adjustment of confounders for the association between proximity to public green spaces and depressive symptoms. Note M1: Accounted for between-area variability by including a random term; M2: Adjusted for M1, sex, age groups, and population group; M3: Adjusted for M2 and educational attainment
Adjusted associations (PR and 95% CI) between proximity to public green spaces and depressive symptoms stratified by sex, age groups, educational attainment, and population groups for those who reported a walking time of 15 min [reference group: >15 min]
Proximity to public green spaces and depressive symptoms among South African residents: a population-based study

March 2024

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44 Reads

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1 Citation

BMC Public Health

Background Exposure to green spaces has been suggested to improve mental health and may reduce the risk of depression. However, there is generally limited evidence on the association between green spaces and depression originating from low-and middle-income countries and Africa in particular. Here, we investigate the association between proximity to public green spaces and depressive symptoms among residents of Gauteng Province, South Africa. Methods We used data from the 2017/2018 Gauteng quality of life survey. We included all individuals aged 18 years or older residing in the nine municipalities of Gauteng Province that completed the survey (n = 24,341). Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Patient Health Questionnaire-2. Proximity to public green spaces was defined as self-reported walking time (either less or greater than 15 min) from individuals’ homes to the nearest public green space. To assess the association between access to public green spaces and depressive symptoms, we used mixed-effects models, adjusted for age, sex, population group (African, Indian/Asian, Coloured (mixed race), and White), educational attainment, and municipality. We additionally performed stratified analyses by age, sex, educational attainment, and population group to evaluate whether associations differed within subgroups. Associations are expressed as prevalence ratios (PR) and their 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). Results We observed a 6% (PR = 0.94, 95%CI = 0.92–0.96) prevalence reduction in depressive symptoms for individuals who reported that the nearest public green space was less than 15 min from their homes as compared to those who reported > 15 min. After stratification, this inverse association was stronger among females, individuals aged 35–59 years,those with higher levels of educational attainment, and Coloured individuals as compared to their counterparts. Conclusion Our findings suggest that public green spaces close to residential homes may be associated with a reduction in the occurrence of depressive symptoms among urban populations in resource-constrained settings like South Africa.




Map of South Africa indicating the wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and waste stabilization pond (WSP) in the Vhembe and Mopani districts.
Trend and distribution of full genome SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern in the Vhembe and Mopani districts during the 17 months’ study period. (A) Distribution of SARS-CoV-2 VoCs between January 2021 to May 2022. The Delta variant was most dominant between April and August 2021, followed by Omicron which was more prominent between December 2021 and January 2022; the “unassigned” variants were most prominent between April and July 2021, while the Beta variants were sparsely detected between July and December 2021. (B) Pie chart illustrating the cumulative frequency of variant occurrence.
Distribution and percentage occurrence of SARS-CoV-2 lineages detected at the study sites. Lineage B.1.351 represents the Beta VoC; B.1.617.2, AY.39, AY.45 represent the Delta VoC; B.1.1.529, BA.1, BA.2, BA.4, BE.1 represent the Omicron VoC. The remaining lineages B.1, B.1.1, B.1.617, and B.1.1.174 represent the “unassigned” variants. (A) Illustration of the diversity of lineages detected at different time points of assessment. (B) Overall percentage occurrence of each of the 12 lineages detected throughout the surveillance period. (NB: Sequences were not available for Mar-21, Sep-21, Oct-21, Feb-22, Mar-22).
Distribution and percentage occurrence of SARS-CoV-2 clades detected at the study sites. Distribution and percentage occurrence of SARS-CoV-2 lineages detected in the study sites. Clade 20H represents the Beta VoC; 21A, 21I, 21J represent the Delta VoC; 21K, 21L, 21M, 22A, 22B represent the Omicron VoC. The remaining clades (20A and 20B) represent the “unassigned” variants. Fig (A) illustrates the diversity of lineages detected at different time points of assessment. Fig (B) highlights the overall percentage occurrence of each of the 11 clades detected throughout the surveillance period. (NB: Sequences were not available for Mar-21, Sep-21, Oct-21, Feb-22, Mar-22).
Full length phylogenetic relationship between study sequences and reference sequences (indicated with colored shapes) from South Africa with 1,000 bootstrap iterations. The blue branches highlight all lineages (B.1.617.2, AY.39, AY.45) and clades (21A, 21I, 21J) associated with the Delta variant. The purple branches show all lineages (B.1.1.529, BA.1, BA.2, BA.4, BE.1) and clades (21K, 21L, 21M, 22A, 22B) associated with the Omicron variant. The green branches highlight lineage B.1.351 and clade 20H associated with the Beta variant. The red branches highlight lineage B.1.1.7 and clade 20I associated with the Alpha variant. Sequences with a black star are those assigned a lineage (B.1, B.1.1, B.1.617, and B.1.1.74) and clade (20A and 20B) by the Nextclade and PangoLIN tools, but not a specific variant name. Phylogenetic analysis shows some of these sequences clustering with the Alpha and Delta variants. However, others “unassigned” sequences still clustered with each other.
Molecular epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 in Northern South Africa: wastewater surveillance from January 2021 to May 2022

December 2023

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79 Reads

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2 Citations

Introduction Wastewater-based genomic surveillance of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) provides a comprehensive approach to characterize evolutionary patterns and distribution of viral types in a population. This study documents the molecular epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2, in Northern South Africa, from January 2021 to May 2022. Methodology A total of 487 wastewater samples were collected from the influent of eight wastewater treatment facilities and tested for SARS-CoV-2 RNA using quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). SARS-CoV-2 positive samples with genome copies/mL ≥1,500 were subjected to allele-specific genotyping (ASG) targeting the Spike protein; 75 SARS-CoV-2 positive samples were subjected to whole genome sequencing (WGS) on the ATOPlex platform. Variants of concern (VoC) and lineages were assigned using the Nextclade and PangoLIN Software. Concordance for VoC between ASG and WGS analyses was determined. Sequence relationship was determined by phylogenetic analysis. Results Seventy-five percent (365/487) of the influent samples were positive for SARS-CoV-2 RNA. Delta and Omicron VoC were more predominant at a prevalence of 45 and 32%, respectively, and they were detected as early as January and February 2021, while Beta VoC was least detected at a prevalence of 5%. A total of 11/60 (18%) sequences were assigned lineages and clades only, but not a specific VoC name. Phylogenetic analysis was used to investigate the relationship of these sequences to other study sequences, and further characterize them. Concordance in variant assignment between ASG and WGS was seen in 51.2% of the study sequences. There was more intra-variant diversity among Beta VoC sequences; mutation E484K was absent. Three previously undescribed mutations (A361S, V327I, D427Y) were seen in Delta VoC. Discussion and Conclusion The detection of Delta and Omicron VoCs in study sites earlier in the outbreak than has been reported in other regions of South Africa highlights the importance of population-based approaches over individual sample-based approaches in genomic surveillance. Inclusion of non-Spike protein targets could improve the specificity of ASG, since all VoCs share similar Spike protein mutations. Finally, continuous molecular epidemiology with the application of sensitive technologies such as next generation sequencing (NGS) is necessary for the documentation of mutations whose implications when further investigated could enhance diagnostics, and vaccine development efforts.


Citations (46)


... However, its toxicity has raised significant concerns regarding its environmental impact (Shah et al., 2024). Effluents containing RhB can pose aesthetic concerns and may have adverse effects on the environment (Nguyen et al., 2023;Umejuru et al., 2024). Research has shown that RhB can induce toxicity in aquatic organisms, particularly at concentrations exceeding 1 mg/L (Skjolding et al., 2021). ...

Reference:

Utilizing Agricultural Waste for Sustainable Remediation of Textile Dyeing Effluents
The application of synthesized geopolymer for the removal of cationic dye from industrial wastewater

Results in Materials

... The same principles apply to showing certain neighborhoods or communities as 'high-risk Mpox premises' -particularly in areas of decreased social, political, and legal acceptance of LGBTQ+ individuals. 2 It has been documented that in SARS-CoV-2 WBE, single individuals who shed a very high wastewater individual signal or a unique variant of the current lineage have been tracked to the individual level over time, known as 'cryptic variants'. 3 Given this ability to 'narrow down' small groups or even individuals, wastewater-based monitoring of historically marginalized communities must be done with cultural sensitivity and measures. ...

Double-edged sword of wastewater surveillance

The Lancet Regional Health - Americas

... This spreading pattern was first observed in South Africa, where the BA.4/BA.5 Omicron variants were first detected. Interestingly, the BA.4 variant emerged one or two months before BA.5 [39,40]. In Latin America, the same pattern was observed in Brazil, Paraguay, Panama, and Mexico [2,41]. ...

Molecular epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 in Northern South Africa: wastewater surveillance from January 2021 to May 2022

... There, people interested in lead-free and cadmium-free coffee cups will find a variety of offerings that meet their specifications. [23][24][25] Although the FDA has regulations in place whereby sellers should adhere to their lead-free claims, [16] many buyers have no guarantee that the stated claims are true. Does lead-free really mean there is no lead in the purchased coffee cup? ...

Concentrations of lead in ceramic tableware in South Africa

South African Journal of Science

... Against this backdrop, the South African Collaborative COVID-19 Surveillance System (SACCESS) network was established in 2021, with the aim of developing standard test methodology, identifying and addressing challenges in qualitative, quantitative detection and RNA sequencing of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater (Archer et al., 2021). Sites for testing were identified on pragmatic and logistical considerations, and included testing of influent wastewater from almost all treatment plants in densely populated urban metropolitan areas, and single plants in central cities or towns in rural provinces. ...

The SACCESS network for COVID-19 wastewater surveillance: a national collaboration for public health responsiveness

... Recent sampling and concentration method evaluations for S. Typhi relied on seeded wastewater rather than field trials in resourcelimited regions [23]. In high-income countries, wastewater systems have been used to assess the community diversity of human viral pathogens using a combination of metagenomics and confirmatory PCR [24], an approach that requires more attention for resourcelimited regions before large-scale rollout [25]. Culture-based methods are effectively used in healthcare settings within resource-limited regions, particularly focusing on bacterial pathogens [26,27]. ...

Promoting Surveillance in Sub-Saharan Africa: Moving to Wastewater and Environmental Genomic Surveillance Requires More Attention
  • Citing Article
  • July 2023

ACS ES&T Water

... Conversely, the eukaryote fraction (which encompasses higher pluricellular organisms, including humans) has been systematically overlooked, despite it constitutes the largest part of the whole proteome, particularly in the water phase [6]. On the other hand, proteins have been recently proposed as potential biomarkers for human health [7] as part of wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) [8,9] or sewage chemical information mining (SCIM) [10] approaches, until now severely limited to small xenobiotic or endogenous molecules. Moreover, the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak dramatically emphasized the relevance of omics-based tools (i.e., genomic, proteomic, transcriptomic) as the population health survey [11]. ...

A world of wastewater-based epidemiology
  • Citing Article
  • May 2023

Nature Water

... A study indicated that the regions most susceptible to exceeding As levels of 10 µg/L are located in South and East Asia, certain parts of Latin America, as well as specific regions in Africa and North America. The study also highlighted significant gaps in data availability, particularly in Africa and Central Asia, necessitating improved As monitoring (Khosravi-Darani et al. 2022;Kapwata et al. 2023). ...

Relations between personal exposure to elevated concentrations of arsenic in water and soil and blood arsenic levels amongst people living in rural areas in Limpopo, South Africa

Environmental Science and Pollution Research

... Lu et al., 2022;Scott et al., 2021;Wright et al., 2022), airports (e.g. Nkambule et al., 2023;Van Der Drift et al., 2024), prisons (e.g. Jobling et al., 2024;Klevens et al., 2023) andhospitals (e.g. ...

Wastewater-based SARS-CoV-2 airport surveillance: key trends at the Cape Town International Airport

Journal of Water and Health

... In general, crude oil extraction and refinery processes have been known to produce extensive amounts of wastewater containing heavy metals such as zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), aluminum (Al), copper (Cu), barium (Ba), strontium (Sr), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), selenium (Se), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), Hg, vanadium (V), arsenic (As), and uranium (U; Chaudhuri, 1978;Dittert et al., 2010;Erickson et al., 1954;Groudeva et al., 2001;Hansen et al., 2019;Mere et al., 2022;Osuji & Onojake, 2004;Pedrozo-Peñafiel et al., 2019;Saleh et al., 2021;Wake, 2005;Wilhelm & Bloom, 2000). In gold mining, Hg is often used to facilitate the separation of other metals naturally found in gold ores such as Zn, Mn, Fe, Al, Cu, Ni, Cr, Pb, Se, Cd, Co, antimony (Sb), V, As, and U (Abdul-Wahab & Marikar, 2012; Jasiak et al., 2021;Khamkhash et al., 2017;Malm et al., 1995;Winde et al., 2019;Zupunski et al., 2023). Although Al, Ba, Se, and Sr are not considered heavy metals with densities >5 g/cm 3 , they often co-occur in the ore and have been associated with environmental pollution (Abdul-Wahab & Marikar, 2012). ...

Environmental exposure to uranium in a population living in close proximity to gold mine tailings in South Africa

Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology