Prithiviraj Fernando’s research while affiliated with Wildlife Research and Conservation Trust and other places

What is this page?


This page lists works of an author who doesn't have a ResearchGate profile or hasn't added the works to their profile yet. It is automatically generated from public (personal) data to further our legitimate goal of comprehensive and accurate scientific recordkeeping. If you are this author and want this page removed, please let us know.

Publications (10)


SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF ELEPHANT-TRAIN COLLISIONS IN SRI LANKA
  • Conference Paper
  • Full-text available

November 2024

·

79 Reads

·

Prithiviraj Fernando

·

·

[...]

·

Railways negatively impact wildlife owing to the risks of collision. In Sri Lanka, elephant-train collisions are a matter of concern as they pose risks to this 'endangered' species. The present study focused on analyzing elephant collision data for four selected railway lines of the Eastern and Northern railway network in Sri Lanka: Maho-Gal Oya, Gal Oya-Batticaloa, Gal Oya-Trincomalee, and Maho-Anuradhapura. Data from 2010 to 2023 were obtained from the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC) and the Sri Lanka Railways (SLR) and supplemented by field assessment. The main objective was to identify collision hotspots through spatial analysis. The two-dimensional kernel density function of ArcGIS 10.8 software was used to identify hotspots. Six collision hotspots were identified along the four selected railway lines. The most critical hotspot, which was the longest (26.8 km) and accounted for 81.8% (n=27) of collisions along the Maho-Gal Oya line, was located between Palugaswewa and Gal Oya. Two hotspots were identified along the Gal Oya-Batticaloa line, one between Gal Oya and Minneriya (10.2 km), accounting for 22.2% (n=6) of collisions and the other at Welikanda (15.3 km), accounting for 44.4% (n=12) of collisions on the line. Another two hotspots were identified along the Gal Oya-Trincomalee line, one close to Gal Oya which was the shortest (5.2 km) and accounted for 14.3% (n=2) of collisions, and the other between Aluth Oya and Kantale (11.4 km), accounting for 71.4% (n=10) of collisions on the line. A single hotspot was identified between Ambanpola and Galgamuwa (10.7 km), accounting for 90.9% (n=11) of collisions along the Maho-Anuradhapura line. Most hotspots were located in areas where railroads traversed through or were in proximity to protected areas, or areas heavily used by elephants. Implementing targeted mitigation measures at the identified hotspots may help reduce the incidence of elephant-train collisions in the country.

Download

Assessment of landscape and railway features associated with elephant- train collisions

September 2024

·

198 Reads

Railway ecology addresses the adverse impacts of railways on biodiversity. Train-related elephant mortality is a threat to elephant conservation and is of socio-economic significance. We investigated correlates of elephant-train collisions in Sri Lanka, assessing specific landscape and railway-related features along four selected railway lines: Maho-Gal Oya, Gal Oya-Batticaloa, Gal Oya-Trincomalee, and Maho-Anuradhapura. Details of elephant-train collisions from 2010-2023 were obtained from the Department of Wildlife Conservation and Sri Lanka Railways. Data on landscape features at 86 collision locations, railway-related features at 56 collision locations and both at 30 random locations along the railway line within elephant range, were recorded, using Google Earth Pro images, ArcGIS 10.8 software, and ground-truthing. Data collected included distances to the nearest water source, protected area, railway station prior to and post-collision, and curved sections of the railway line. Mann-Whitney U tests were conducted to assess the significance of differences between collision and random locations. The analysis indicated significant differences (p<0.05) for protected areas and railway stations located prior to incident points. Collision locations were closer to protected areas than non-collision points (median: 0.03 km versus 0.82 km) and farther from railway stations prior to collisions (median: 8.43 km versus 5.86 km). Contrary to popular belief, the findings suggest that elephants accessing water sources and lack of early detection of elephants due to curvature of the railway line, were not associated with collisions. Proximity to protected areas increased collision risk, possibly indicating greater use of such areas by elephants. Collisions were higher at a greater distance from the railway station, which was its previous stop, perhaps indicating that speeds of trains are a contributory factor to collisions. The study emphasizes the necessity of targeted interventions in high-risk areas to mitigate collisions between elephants and trains.


Characteristics of post toppling behaviour. (a) Camera trap captures of fence crossing males. Fence crossing by A Neraluwa gate, B fallen post, C stepping over the fence, D pulling post by the top section using the trunk, E crashing through wires, F and I pushing posts by the bottom section with forelegs, G and H pushing posts by the bottom and top sections respectively using the trunk. (b) Post toppling methods. (c) Parts of post used to pull and push. (d) Post toppling method in relation to body appendage used. (e) Section of post contacted by body in toppling posts.
Frequency of fence crossing vs time of day at the three locations (a–c). Red lines – elephants exiting, blue lines – elephants entering the park. Solid lines – modelled means, dashed lines – ±1SE. Circles indicate frequency of crossings per hour. (a) Neraluwa. (b) Pokunuthanna. (c) Southern fence.
How did the elephant cross the fence? Electric fence crossing by elephants in Udawalawe, Sri Lanka

September 2024

·

142 Reads

Electric fences are widely used in human–elephant conflict mitigation. However, elephants constantly challenge and overcome fences, which is a growing concern. We studied how elephants crossed the perimeter electric fence around the Udawalawe National Park (UWNP), Sri Lanka. Using camera traps, we monitored 18 fence posts and an open gate in the fence over 605 days from 2016 to 2019. Photographs of 3097 fence crossings were analysed to obtain demographic data for fence crossing elephants, crossing methods, and the daily and seasonal timing of fence crossing. We identified 77 adult males and 12 adult females that crossed the fence, which represent about 17% of the adult elephants in UWNP. Most of the crossings were through the open gate at night. Elephants used a variety of crossing methods, comprised of crossing at the open gate, at previously toppled posts, by crashing through wires and stepping over wires, as well as by using the trunk or forefeet to topple posts. Fence voltage was not a determinant of fence crossing. The frequency and timing of fence crossings varied between locations with later exits and less time spent outside, at crossing points bordering human dominated areas. Our results emphasis on the importance of taking into account the problem solving abilities of elephants in fence design and location, such as energising fence posts and constructing exclosure fences at the boundaries of crop fields and settlements, in employing electric fences to mitigate human‐elephant conflict.


Is restricting mobile communication a solution to overcrowding? A test from Yala National Park, Sri Lanka Is restricting mobile communication a solution to overcrowding? A test from Yala National Park, Sri Lanka

May 2024

·

123 Reads

Ceylon Journal of Science

Highlights • Visitor satisfaction was positively related to sightings of the 'big three', elephants, leopards and sloth bears. • Visitor satisfaction was not related to overcrowding at sightings. • Reduced mobile coverage lessened overcrowding at sightings. • Reduced mobile coverage decreased sightings, resulting in reduction of visitor satisfaction. • Eliminating mobile communication is not a viable solution to overcrowding. Abstract: The Yala National Park is the premier protected area in Sri Lanka. Overcrowding has been an issue in Yala for over a decade. Information sharing by mobile communication was thought to result in safari jeeps flocking to favoured sightings, causing overcrowding and reckless driving. We assessed visitor satisfaction and the impact of switching off mobile communication towers providing park coverage, by conducting a questionnaire survey, checking signal strength and assessing vehicle speed. We found that visitor satisfaction was related to sightings of the 'big three', elephants, leopards and sloth bears, but not to overcrowding at sightings. Reckless driving impacted visitor satisfaction both negatively and positively. High speed driving was mostly due to trying to exit the park before the park-closure time. Switching off mobile communication towers reduced signal strength and accessibility but did not eliminate it. Reduced mobile coverage lessened overcrowding at sightings but also decreased sightings, resulting in an overall reduction of visitor satisfaction. We conclude that reducing or eliminating mobile communication is not a viable solution to overcrowding.



Figure 6. Young adult male. Note small head and slender penis. Parietal domes, nasal protuberance and trunk base not well developed.
Figure 7. Mature adult male. Note the large head, prominent parietal domes, nasal protuberance and penile bulge.
Figure 8. Mature adult male. Note the prominent parietal domes and nasal protuberance. However, the head is small in proportion.
Figure 9. Typical copious temporal discharge of mature-adult male in musth. Also note the prominent parietal domes and fairly developed nasal protuberance.
Size-age classes used by selected studies on Asian elephants (M = Male, F = Female, AF = Adult Female).
Size-Age Class Scale for Asian Elephants

January 2022

·

588 Reads

·

6 Citations

Population structure provides important information for managing and conserving free ranging Asian elephant populations. A variety of size-age classes, based on estimating height or age and measuring captive animals of known age, have been used previously. Here we propose a simple scale, using the individual’s height relative to an adult female. We also indicate morphological characters of relevance, where determining relative height maybe an issue, as in the case of adult males.



Fig. 2 Proportions of six categories of items available in the garbage piles and their proportions in the elephants' diet
The elephant at the dump: how does garbage consumption impact Asian elephants?

March 2021

·

419 Reads

·

9 Citations

Mammalian Biology

We studied garbage consumption by Asian elephants at the Uddakandara garbage dump in southern Sri Lanka. Garbage at the dump was classified under six categories and quantified using a grid overlay. Elephants visiting the dump were individually identified by morphological criteria and items and quantities consumed by them were determined by focal animal sampling. Dung of elephants that did not consume garbage and those from the dump were compared quantitatively and dung constituents assessed by washing through three layered sieves. A total of 17 individual elephants visited the garbage dump during the study period, all of who were males. The observed sexual bias could be related to behavioural differences between the sexes. Elephants mostly consumed ‘fruits and vegetables’ and ‘prepared food’, possibly due to their higher palatability and nutritional value. Ingestion of polythene was incidental and associated with consuming prepared food. Proportions of the six categories in elephant diet and garbage piles were significantly different, indicating that elephants were highly selective when feeding. Elephant arrivals increased in response to unloading of garbage, suggesting attraction to fresh garbage. Dung analysis found that garbage consumption did not change the quantity and constituents of dung, except for the presence of anthropogenic items. As consumed anthropogenic items were regularly excreted, retention and obstruction of the alimentary tract are unlikely in elephants. Elephants feeding on garbage had better body condition than non-garbage consuming elephants, indicating that garbage provided better nutrition than natural food and was not detrimental to their health.


Map of Udawalawe National Park
Frequencies individual elephants were sighted in 2011
Number of fence elephants observed per sampling period
Types of food given to elephants
The elephant at the fence: almsman, panhandler, friend or foe?

December 2020

·

621 Reads

·

7 Citations

European Journal of Wildlife Research

Feeding of wild Asian elephants at the Udawalawe National Park perimeter electric fence by the general public is longstanding. We monitored the elephants and feeding activities, and conducted questionnaire surveys of stakeholders. Over 50 individual adult male elephants engaged in the activity. The exclusive male presence was consistent with a high-risk high-gain male strategy. The elephants were mostly offered fruits and vegetables. Over a thousand people a day watched and fed the elephants. Most people bought food for elephants from roadside stalls and vendors had significantly more sales if elephants were present. The feeding of elephants brought significant economic benefit to communities bordering the park. We found the impacts of feeding on the elephants and environment to be largely neutral. Impacts on people and conservation were mainly positive. Actions taken by authorities to stop the feeding have targeted the elephants and resulted in the decrease of feeding but not its elimination. Managing the activity instead would help increase economic benefits and ensure safe interaction between people and elephants. Such management, by directly benefitting local communities, could make them partners in the conservation process and form the basis of an effective outreach program.


Fig. 1. Primate taxa surveyed in Sri Lanka. (a) L. lydekkerianus; (b) M. sinica; (c) S. p. thersites; (d) S. vetulus.
Fig. 2. Presence/absence in grid cells, based on interviews (absent, 1, 2 or 3 positive answers) or assigned based on neighbouring cells for grid cells without residents (absent or present in the forest). "Forest" refers to grid cells without resident people.
Primate taxa in Sri Lanka.
Results from the interviews and assignment of grid cells without resident people (forest).
Data collected for the four primate taxa.
Island-wide distribution of Sri Lankan primates based on a questionnaire survey of residents

January 2020

·

447 Reads

·

2 Citations

Five primate species, representing three genera and 12 subspecies, occur in Sri Lanka. We conducted an island-wide questionnaire survey of primate presence/absence, based on a 5x5 km grid with three questionnaires administered to residents in each cell. Respondents were queried on the presence of Slender Lorises, Toque Macaques, Sri Lankan Sacred Langurs and Purple-faced Langurs in their neighbourhood. Results indicated that Slender Lorises and Toque Macaques were distributed over 88% and 90% of Sri Lanka, respectively, including the wet and dry zones, but with patchy wet-zone distributions. Sri Lankan Sacred Langurs were present over 86% of the island but absent from large parts of the wet zone. Purple-faced Langurs were distributed over 53% of Sri Lanka with a disjunct distribution consisting of a patchy dry-zone presence and a more uniform wet-zone distribution. The maps presented are the first based on a systematic island-wide survey. We discuss the implications of the observed distributions for primate taxonomy and conservation

Citations (4)


... Elephants in the camera trap images were classified into different sex-size classes as adult female, juvenile, sub-adult male, young-adult male and mature-adult male according to Fernando et al. (2022). Adults were identified individually using ear characteristics (de Silva et al., 2011). ...

Reference:

How did the elephant cross the fence? Electric fence crossing by elephants in Udawalawe, Sri Lanka
Size-Age Class Scale for Asian Elephants

... Ninety-two percent of the studies were focused on wildlife with the remaining 8 % of studies focused on domestic animals including cattle (Bos taurus) [11,43,[67][68][69], buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) [11], goats (Capra hircus) [11,43,70], sheep (Ovis aries) [43,71,72], pigs (Sus domesticus) [11,14,43,73,74], dogs (Canis familiaris) [11,43,44,67,69,[75][76][77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84], cats (Felis catus) [49,67,69,76,[85][86][87][88][89], donkeys (Equus africanus) [43], and horses (Equus caballus) [44]. Four species of mammals reported were endangered [69,[90][91][92][93]. Additionally, there were 6 vulnerable species [67,69,[94][95][96][97]. ...

The elephant at the dump: how does garbage consumption impact Asian elephants?

Mammalian Biology

... Three species and all subspecies are endemic. Pastorini et al. [2021] provide updated distribution maps and taxonomic reviews of these taxa. Many are illustrated and described [Nekaris and de Silva Wijeyeratne, 2009;Pethiyagoda et al., 2012;Yapa and Ratnawira, 2013]. ...

Island-wide distribution of Sri Lankan primates based on a questionnaire survey of residents

... Thus, it is possible that part of the home ranges of some female groups lay outside the park with the fence dividing their home ranges, but that they used the gate to move between the inside and outside parts. Hence, closure of fence openings that female groups used to move in and out of the park could be detrimental to their survival (Fernando, Ekanayaka, & Pastorini, 2020), and might induce female groups also to break electric fences. ...

The elephant at the fence: almsman, panhandler, friend or foe?

European Journal of Wildlife Research