Petter Gottschalk’s research while affiliated with BI Norwegian Business School and other places

Economic Crime and Conceptions of Trust explores the intricacies of the contemporary concept of trust in episodes of misconduct through an analysis of workplace deviance and crime. Grounded in detailed examinations of contemporary case studies and bolstered by original comparative fieldwork, the text takes an offender-focused approach, emphasizing the pivotal role of convenience. Adopting an interdisciplinary perspective, the authors seek to enhance and broaden existing understanding of white-collar and corporate criminology, while also highlighting its relevance to strategic management studies. A core argument of the book is that the traditional emphasis on individual actors and notions of trustworthiness when conceptualising white-collar has waned in recent times. The authors’ perspective revisits and builds upon this important foundational concept of late twentieth-century discourse within the discipline, signalling a need for a reassessment and highlighting a number of recent conceptual developments to evaluate and position trust within the twenty-first century globalized business sphere.

This chapter explores the interplay between convenience themes and elements of trust in the context of white-collar crime in the online environment. The inherently private nature of business has long provided fertile ground for financial misconduct and convenience theory posits that when the opportunity for crime is paired with an offender’s willingness and motive, it can effectively explain instances of wrongdoing. With the advent of networked technologies, the authors identify both familiar and enhanced private environments that facilitate criminal behavior and breaches of trust. A focal point of this exploration is the rise of cryptocurrencies, which enable pseudo-anonymous financial transactions. This banking practice raises concerns, as it appears to undermine many of the trust-based elements that are foundational to traditional banking systems.

Edwin Sutherland’s pioneering studies on white-collar crime in the first half of the twentieth century fundamentally shaped our criminological understanding of this complex phenomenon by emphasizing its structural and foundational parameters. He argued that the concept of white-collar crime should center on dishonest behavior and the betrayal of trust, and he insisted that this newly identified category of crime be taken seriously (Sutherland, 1939). Traditionally, the seriousness of white-collar crime has been examined as a singular phenomenon, often lacking the nuanced exploration of its dimensions or underlying propositions (Andriaessen et al., 2020; Dodge et al., 2013; Lord & Levi, 2023; Michel, 2016). This chapter seeks to advance the study of white-collar crime by providing a detailed analysis of perceptions of seriousness concerning each of the fourteen convenience propositions discussed earlier. The aim is to investigate which aspects of white-collar crime—specifically within the dimensions of motive, opportunity, and willingness—are perceived as the most serious and impactful in shaping notions of trust.

Building upon the conceptual analysis presented in the foregoing, this chapter focuses on empirical survey research conducted in Romania, aimed at evaluating the support for various propositions within convenience theory, specifically in relation to motive, opportunity, willingness, and, crucially, trustworthiness. This research is significant, as it seeks to uncover areas where convenience-related propositions could lead to a potential breach of trust among respondents. Strong support for these propositions may highlight specific vulnerabilities that, if addressed, could help reduce the likelihood of white-collar crime.

Many countries have established dedicated national authorities to investigate and prosecute serious and complex white-collar and corporate crime. This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the research literature concerning the external challenges and barriers faced by national agencies in Norway (Økokrim), New Zealand (Serious Fraud Office, SFO), the UK (SFO), and the Netherlands (Openbaar Ministerie, OSF). The policing study presented in this chapter is critical, as it highlights the dilemmas that governments must confront when assessing public trust in their national fraud offices and economic crime authorities. For instance, Økokrim in Norway appears hesitant to prosecute cases deemed too complex, which raises questions about its effectiveness and the public’s perception of its capabilities. In contrast, the SFO in New Zealand actively works to prevent the deinstitutionalization of economic crime investigations, striving to maintain a robust framework for tackling fraud. Meanwhile, the SFO in the UK may exert deterrent effects through its enforcement activities, potentially influencing corporate behavior across the country. Conversely, the OSF in the Netherlands faces significant challenges from the private sector, particularly from corporate investigators who operate independently, complicating the landscape of corporate crime investigations.

This chapter investigates the differences in convenience propositions for two convicted offenders identified as a “leader” and a “follower” in the context of financial crime. This unique case study centers on a married couple, allowing for an in-depth analysis of trust dynamics within their interpersonal relationship. Utilizing data from the Norwegian criminal justice system, the chapter examines the contrasting criminal profiles of the husband, an attorney and self-identified leader in their criminal activities, and the wife, an accountant who assumed the role of a follower.

This chapter presents a critical case study of Økokrim, Norway’s National Authority for Investigation and Prosecution of Economic and Environmental Crime. The analysis focuses on Økokrim’s operations and the policy decisions made by this centralized anti-economic crime agency, particularly in relation to public trust and confidence in its actions. To provide a thorough evaluation, the authors employ a detailed content analysis of press releases issued by Økokrim, using them as a primary data source. This approach allows for a nuanced understanding of how the agency communicates its activities and the impact this communication has on public perception.

In 2017, Petter Gottschalk introduced the concept of convenience as a fundamental framework for understanding white-collar and corporate crime. Since then, this theory has evolved significantly, expanding to include fourteen distinct research propositions that explore the notion of crime convenience through three key dimensions: motive, opportunity, and willingness (Gottschalk, 2017, 2022; Gottschalk & Hamerton, 2024a, 2024b). This chapter delves into the development of the theory and examines its various components in detail, providing a comprehensive theoretical and conceptual foundation. By articulating how convenience intersects with the motivations of offenders, the opportunities they encounter, and their willingness to engage in criminal behavior, the chapter sets the stage for a deeper understanding of white-collar crime within criminology and criminal justice. Furthermore, the theory’s core elements, particularly those relating to trust and primary motivations, are subjected to empirical testing through comparative fieldwork conducted in diverse contexts across the United States, Norway, India, Iran, and Malaysia. This empirical approach aims to validate the theoretical propositions and reveal the nuances of how convenience influences criminal behavior in different cultural and economic settings. Through this rigorous analysis, the chapter seeks to contribute to the broader discourse on corporate crime and inform future research in this critical area.

In February 2022, Russia’s invasion of Ukraine prompted national governments and multinational organizations, such as the European Union, to impose a series of economic sanctions against Russia. These sanctions were designed to pressure the Russian government by targeting its economy, and companies within sanctioning countries were expected to sever their business ties with Russian firms. However, the financial threat posed by these sanctions led some businesses to engage in deviant behavior in order to circumvent or evade the imposed restrictions. This chapter focuses on a case study involving an insurance firm that sought to terminate an insurance arrangement to mitigate potential allegations of money laundering. A significant seafood company in Norway had undergone a transfer of ownership from Russian stakeholders to Norwegian interests. Yet, despite this transfer, there were indications that the Russian owners retained effective control, as the Norwegian party had not compensated them for the controlling interest. This situation raised serious questions about ownership transparency and compliance with the sanctions.

The national authority Økokrim was established several decades ago with the mission of becoming a center of excellence for the investigation and prosecution of economic and environmental crime in Norway, particularly focusing on white-collar and corporate crime. Økokrim initially gained public trust through its successful handling of complex crime cases, positioning itself as a formidable force in the realm of financial crime enforcement. However, this reputation faced a significant challenge when Økokrim was involved in a high-profile court case against the Swiss company Transocean and its advisers, who were accused of tax fraud. This case ended in failure for Økokrim, leading to increased scrutiny of its operations. In response, the Attorney General of Norway commissioned a comprehensive review of the national authority. The findings revealed substantial shortcomings in Økokrim’s management practices, as well as a lack of competence among the detectives and lawyers within its policing unit.