Ning Fang's research while affiliated with Utah State University and other places
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Publications (91)
Background: A solid conceptual understanding is essential for students to succeed in all academic disciplines. Student misconceptions are correlated with their poor academic performance and high attrition rates. It is especially important to correct student misconceptions in science-based undergraduate engineering mechanics courses that cover numer...
Tool edge radius plays a significant role in affecting the surface integrity of machined products. The vast majority of existing research, however, takes no account of the effect of tool edge radius in the evaluation and modeling of machined surface roughness, an essential indicator of surface integrity. The present study fills this important resea...
The original version of this article contained a mistake.
Conceptual understanding is critical for students’ learning of many subject matters in science and engineering. This paperdescribes an educational intervention called enhanced hands-on experimentation (EHE). The goal is to reduce students’conceptual misunderstanding in engineering dynamics, a foundational second-year course that undergraduates in m...
This paper presents a review on student misconceptions of general plane motion (GPM), one of the most difficult yet important concepts in engineering dynamics and a foundational course that civil and mechanical engineering students are required to take in their undergraduate study. The paper discusses student misconceptions of GPM reported in the l...
This paper describes the development and assessment of computer simulation and animation learning modules that involve energy, impulse, and momentum in rigid‐body engineering dynamics. The assessment results show that the group‐average learning gain increases from less than 23% in the comparison group to more than 60% in the intervention group.
Freehand sketching is a fundamental skill in mechanical engineering and many other engineering disciplines. It not only serves as a communication tool among engineers, but plays a critical role in engineering design and problem solving. However, as computer-aided drafting has replaced traditional drawing classes nowadays, the training of students’...
This study focuses on the investigation of the effects of computer simulation and animation (CSA) on students' cognitive processes in an undergraduate engineering course. The revised Bloom's taxonomy, which consists of six categories in the cognitive process domain, was employed in this study. Five of the six categories were investigated, including...
An innovative educational technology called interactive virtual and physical manipulatives (VPM) is developed to improve students’ spatial skills. With VPM technology, not only can students touch and play with real-world physical manipulatives in their hands but also they can see how the corresponding virtual manipulatives (i.e., computer graphics)...
This paper presents a comprehensive review of student misconceptions about work and energy, two fundamental and critical concepts in engineering mechanics education. Compared to force and acceleration, work and energy are two higher level concepts that many students have trouble to understand. Misconceptions of work and energy are different from th...
Computer simulation and animation (CSA) has been receiving growing attention and wide application in engineering education in recent years. A new interactive CSA module was developed in the present study to improve student learning of particle kinetics in an undergraduate engineering dynamics course. The unique feature of this CSA module is that it...
Neural networks are a soft computing technique with wide application in signal processing as well as system and process modeling. In the present study, multilayer perceptron (MLP) neural networks were employed to process multidimensional signals generated in metal machining operations (including three-dimensional cutting force signals and three-dim...
Conceptual misunderstanding, also known as misconception, is common among many learners, especially novice learners, and often results in learners' poor academic performance in many disciplines. The present study focuses on two fundamental and critical concepts in physics and engineering mechanics education: force and acceleration. The present stud...
This paper describes a U.S. National Science Foundation-funded Research Experiences for Undergraduates (REU) Site program that aims to provide undergraduate students with experiences in engineering education research (i.e., education research in the context of engineering). This paper provides an overview of the program and briefly describes the co...
This paper presents the experimental investigation of cutting parameters, tool flank wear, cutting tool vibrations and surface roughness parameters (Ra and Rt) while machining Ti-6Al-4V. High speed turning experiments have been carried out to study the variation in surface roughness due to changes in flank wear, cutting tool vibrations and cutting...
Artificial neural network is a powerful technique of computational intelligence and has been applied in a variety of fields such as engineering and computer science. This paper deals with the neural network modeling and prediction of surface roughness in machining aluminum alloys using data collected from both force and vibration sensors. Two neura...
Engineering mechanics (EM) is considered one of the most difficult introductory courses in undergraduate education in civil engineering, mechanical engineering, aerospace engineering, and material science and engineering. Built on the foundation and framework of mathematics and physics, the course requires students to have not only strong abstract...
Computer animation (CA) is increasingly being employed in engineering education. The user-controlled animations allow users (students) to manipulate input variables and observe how the output numerical results change simultaneously and visually with animations. This article describes how ActionScript 3.0 was used to create user-controlled computer...
Use of computer simulation and animation (CSA) in higher education is growing rapidly and has become a major trend in undergraduate engineering education. This paper conducts a comprehensive and critical literature review regarding the use of CSA as a learning aid to teach engineering mechanics courses. The paper addresses two main topics: (1) peda...
Computer simulation and animation (CSA) has been receiving growing attention and application in recent years in the international engineering education community. In the present study, an innovative set of CSA learning modules was developed to improve student learning of projectile motion in engineering dynamics, an important yet difficult undergra...
The purpose of this research was to investigate high school students’ computer self-efficacy (CSE) and learning behavior in a selfregulated learning (SRL) framework while utilizing an interactive learning module. The researcher hypothesizes that CSE is reflected on cognitive actions and metacognitive strategies while the students are engaged with i...
Tool condition monitoring is increasingly important as a widespread application of automated, computer numerically controlled machining in a variety of modern industries. Although a significant amount of research on tool condition monitoring in machining has been conducted during the past few decades, the research is primarily focused on tool flank...
Algorithm-related problems including more than one convergent solutions, endless loop, no solution within the recommended search ranges, low prediction precision, and low efficiency arise when the Oxley’s theoretical model and its extended models are applied. A new parameter-based algorithm is proposed in this paper which turns the model-solution-s...
Conceptual understanding plays an important role in science and engineering education. The present study focuses on an investigation of students' perceptions of difficult concepts in a high-enrolment, high-impact, foundational engineering dynamics course. A total of 88 undergraduate students who recently took an engineering dynamics course particip...
This paper presents the results of a comparative study of motivation and learning strategies between American and Chinese undergraduate engineering students. A total of 109 sophomore engineering students from two American and Chinese universities responded to a Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) survey. The survey includes six m...
This paper presents the results of a comparative study of learning style preferences between American and Chinese undergraduate engineering students. A total of 132 sophomore engineering students from two American and Chinese universities responded to an Index of Learning Styles (ILS) survey. The survey is a 44-item, self-scoring questionnaire that...
A Web-based interactive intelligent tutoring system was developed and assessed in an engineering dynamics course. The system consists of two learning modules to help students learn how to apply the Principle of Work and Energy to solve particle and rigid-body dynamics problems. Student learning gains were compared using a quasi-experimental researc...
Part II of the present study is a comparative study of high-speed machining of Ti-6Al-4V and Inconel 718, focusing on a comparison between the effects of dynamic tool edge wear on cutting vibrations. This paper describes in detail how cutting vibrations were measured and how vibration signals were processed using a wavelet packet transform techniqu...
The wear on a tool cutting edge (called tool edge wear) develops rapidly in high-speed machining. Part I of the present study is a comparative study of high-speed machining of two widely-used aerospace materials (titanium alloy Ti–6Al–4V and nickel-based superalloy Inconel 718), focusing on a comparison between the effects of dynamic tool edge wear...
Predicting student academic performance has long been an important research topic in many academic disciplines. The present study is the first study that develops and compares four types of mathematical models to predict student academic performance in engineering dynamics – a high-enrollment, high-impact, and core course that many engineering unde...
K-12 engineering education has recently received increasing national and international attention for stimulating interest and improving learning in mathematics and science. This paper describes a case study of K-12 engineering education in which a real-world engineering example is integrated into a computer simulation learning module to improve stu...
Extensive literature review shows that no intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs) were developed for engineering dynamics, a second-year core course that nearly all undergraduates majoring in mechanical, aerospace, civil, environmental, or biomedical engineering are required to take. This paper describes two innovative, web-based, interactive ITS modul...
This paper presents a new concept mapping approach, called “Tree of Dynamics,” to enhance students' perception (intuitive cognition) of the relationships among fundamental concepts in an introductory engineering dynamics course. In this approach, the relationships among concepts are represented by tree structures including roots, trunks, branches,...
This paper presents our ongoing efforts toward developing an Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS) to improve student learning in a sophomore engineering dynamics course. An ITS module was developed to guide students applying the Principle of Work and Energy to solve particle dynamics problems. Pre-post tests, each including six technical questions, we...
This paper reports the longitudinal assessment results of an interactive computer simulation and animation (CSA) learning module that was developed for, and implemented in, an engineering dynamics course. Longitudinal assessments were conducted in four semesters involving 304 engineering undergraduates. Pre-post tests and questionnaire surveys were...
A concept pair is a pair of concepts that are fundamentally different but closely related. To develop a solid conceptual understanding in dynamics (a foundational engineering science course) and physics, students must understand the fundamental difference and relationship between two concepts that are included in each concept pair. However, all exi...
This paper presents our ongoing efforts in developing mathematical models to make early predictions, even before the semester starts, of what score a student will earn in the final comprehensive exam of the engineering dynamics course. A total of 1,938 data records were collected from 323 undergraduates in four semesters. Employed were four differe...
Tool-edge wear (i.e., the wear of a tool cutting edge before it is fully worn away) is among significant concerns in high-speed machining because it can result in early tool failure and deteriorated quality of machined parts. Based on extensive experimental results, this paper shows how tool-edge wear is correlated with the cutting forces and vibra...
Nearly all published literature on grant proposal writing focuses on suggesting best practices for, or providing general guidance on, grant proposal writing (i.e., what a grant writer should do and should not do), rather than on pedagogy (i.e., how to teach grant proposal writing). To fill this gap, a student-centered active learning approach to te...
This paper presents a project-based active and collaborative learning approach to improving the technical and professional skills of engineering students. The approach includes three integrated tasks that students develop and design, rather than simply use them. Task 1 focuses on developing a computer simulation program for machining; Task 2 on dev...
Denoising is an essential step and plays a significant role in tool condition monitoring. In the present study, four wavelet-based denoising techniques are studied and compared, including conventional hard-thresholding, conventional soft-thresholding, generalized soft-thresholding, and soft-thresholding with Stein’s unbiased risk estimate (SURE). T...
Prediction of student academic performance helps instructors develop a good understanding of how well or how poorly the students will perform, so instructors can take proactive measures to improve student learning. This paper reports our recent ongoing efforts that focus on developing a predictive model to predict students' academic performance in...
This paper reports ongoing efforts of integrating mathematical modeling with computer visualization to improve students' problem solving in an introductory Engineering Dynamics course. A special set of computer simulation and animation (CSA) learning modules was developed, implemented, and assessed in an Engineering Dynamics course taught by the au...
The tool edge radius significantly affects material deformation and flow, tool–chip friction, and a variety of machining performance
measures (such as the cutting forces and tool wear) in mechanical micro/meso-scale machining. The tool edge-related research,
either theoretically or experimentally, has been only focused in machining cases in which n...
This paper presents a modified concept mapping approach, called the "Tree of Dynamics," in which the relationships among concepts are represented by "tree" structures including roots, trunks, branches, leaves, and fruits, instead of by using linking words or phrases, to enhance students' perception of the relationships among concepts and also to ad...
Instructional awareness is an instructor's clear and comprehensive understanding of his/her teaching pedagogy and practice. It affects teaching effectiveness and ultimately student learning. This paper presents a statistics-based, quantitative, and objective methodology to help develop instructional awareness in teaching a large engineering class w...
High-speed machining has been receiving growing attention and wide applications in modern manufacture. Extensive research has been conducted in the past on tool flank wear and crater wear in high-speed machining (such as milling, turning, and drilling). However, little study was performed on the tool edge wear-the wear of a tool cutting edge before...
Built-up edge (BUE) formation in machining has a profound effect on the cutting forces and vibrations, the quality of machined surfaces, etc. Prediction of BUE formation is important for machining optimisation and tool condition monitoring. This article presents a neural network approach to predicting BUE formation in orthogonal machining of 2024-T...
Modern advanced machining processes often require the automatic monitoring of tool condition and machining performance, such
as the cutting vibrations and chatter, the cutting forces, tool wear, the machined surface quality, and built-up edge (BUE).
The BUE is often generated on the tool rake face in machining ductile metals and alloys at low to mo...
The present study aims to develop a validated set of multivariate regression models to predict student academic performance in Engineering Dynamics-a high-enrollment, high-impact, and core engineering course. The models include eight predictor/independent variables that take into account student achievement before taking the course and student lear...
Prediction of student academic performance helps instructors develop a good understanding of how well or how poorly the students in their classes will perform, so instructors can take proactive measures to improve student learning. Based on a total of 2,151 data points collected from 239 undergraduate students in three semesters, a new set of multi...
This paper aims at developing a decision tree model to predict student performance in engineering dynamics - a high-enrollment, high-impact, and core engineering course. This study is innovative because no prior literature exists on the same topic. Three research contributions are made: 1) Nine ¿if-then¿ decision rules were generated to predict s...
The goal of the present study is to provide a building block approach which will enable the synthesis of new Michell truss
structure solutions. Curved support boundaries for Michell truss structures are categorized into four types. Each type is
graphically illustrated as a simple example structure. A general matrix operator method is developed to s...
The present study aims at the development of a new methodology for designing a curve-edged twist drill with an arbitrarily given distribution of the cutting angles along the tool cutting edge. The new methodology consists of 81 major mathematical equations and is developed using a method of mapping relevant planes and straight lines of a cutting to...
Titanium alloy Ti–6Al–4V and nickel-based superalloy Inconel 718 have been widely employed in modern manufacturing. The published literature on high speed machining (HSM) of the two materials often involves different machining set-up, which makes it difficult to directly apply the research findings from one material to the other to select the most...
The design of light-weight structures is a subject of central importance in the development of numerous civil and mechanical engineering products, such as bridges, roofs, and aerospace constructions. Based on matrix operators, a new methodology is established in the present study to design minimum-weight dual-material truss layout structures with c...
We have developed a simulation-based hands-on approach to actively engaging students in learning lean manufacturing principles and tools. In this innovative approach, student teams assemble Lego cars with 45 components in five work stations. The purpose is to demonstrate a variety of benefits from lean production and to provide students with opport...
The Classroom Response System (colloquially called "clickers") is an innovative instructional technology that provides the instructor with immediate feedback and real-time assessment on student learning in the classroom. This paper reports recent efforts of adopting clicker technology in Engineering Dynamics, a high-enrollment, high-impact, core en...
A comparative study of high-speed machining of Ti-6AL-4V and Inconel 718 is conducted at a range of cutting speeds and feed rates. Multiple quantities including serrated chip morphology, chip flow speed, chip segmentation frequency, and cutting forces are used in comparison. Highspeed photography is used to measure the chip flow speed based on whic...
Computer-assisted instruction is an innovative instructional strategy that has been receiving increasing attention in engineering and technology education. This paper describes our recent efforts to develop and implement a computer simulation program to enhance student learning of a manufacturing course. Examples of student work assignments that de...
This paper reports our continuous efforts in developing and implementing an improved teaching strategy to enhance lean manufacturing education. As an interdisciplinary engineering and business instructor- team, we have jointly taught a lean course twice. Based on our experience in the first course, we made five improvements in the second course, wh...
This paper reports our ongoing effort in developing a new instructional model to improve cognitive learning and student motivation in undergraduate manufacturing engineering education. In this model, a computer animation and simulation program is incorporated into hands-on real-world experiments. The paper describes the interactive computer program...
The model of propylene distillation helps improve the quality of propylene products. This paper proposes a methodology of constructing the model of propylene distillation based on the neural network technique. The strategy of adjusting the neural network-based model of propylene distillation with rough sets is proposed. A numerical example of the n...
An improved immune-genetic algorithm is applied to solve the traveling salesman problem (TSP) in this paper. A new selection strategy is incorporated into the conventional genetic algorithm to improve the performance of genetic algorithm. The selection strategy includes three computational procedures: evaluating the diversity of genes, calculating...
It is important to consider the effect of tool edge geometry in finish machining where the feed rate is small and on the same order of magnitude as tool edge dimension. In this paper, both theoretical and experimental investigations are performed in finish machining with a rounded edge tool. The experimental set-up is introduced first, followed by...
Lean systems have proven to be an effective strategy to increase productivity and cost competitiveness for many companies in the U.S. Lean systems are fundamentally the Toyota management model that utilizes significantly fewer resources to produce a larger variety of products at higher levels of product quality and service. Toyota's success is reno...
This paper introduces preliminary developments of an NSF-funded on-going educational project. The project goal is to enhance student technical and professional skills and business knowledge by integrating lean manufacturing education into a traditional manufacturing engineering program. A group of faculty members with complementary background and e...
An innovative non-conventional technique, called impulsive chip breaking, is developed in the present study to break difficult-to-break chips that are often generated in machining high toughness or soft gummy materials, such as pure aluminum, pure copper, aluminum alloys, copper alloys, low carbon steels, and stainless steels. These materials have...
The effects of tool edge geometry in machining have received much attention in recent years due to a variety of emerging machining techniques, such as finish hard turning and micro-machining. In these techniques, the uncut chip thickness is often on the same order of magnitude as tool edge dimension. This paper presents and analyses the results of...
Extensive investigations on built-up edge (BUE) formation in machining have been conducted in the past. However, very little effort has been made to quantitatively predict the size of the BUE and its effect on chip flow and cutting forces under different machining conditions. This prediction is important because it is the key to predicting the fluc...
A fundamental and quantitative analysis of the tool-chip friction helps to better understand the mechanism of chip formation and other complex phenomena in machining with a large negative rake angle tool. Built upon Lee and Shaffer's model, this paper presents an analytical slip-line approach to investigate how the negative tool rake angle and the...
This paper presents a new quantitative sensitivity analysis of cutting performances in orthogonal machining with restricted contact and fat faced tools, based on a recently developed slip-line model. Cutting performances are comprehensively measured by five machining parameters, i.e., the cutting forces, the chip back-flow angle, the chip up-curl r...
This paper develops a new analytical model to predict the chip back-flow angle in machining with restricted contact grooved tools. The model is derived from a recently established universal slip-line model for machining with restricted contact cutaway tools. A comprehensive definition of the chip back-flow angle is presented first, and based on thi...
The effect of tool edge roundness attracts growing attention from the international machining research community due to ever accelerating applications of precision, super-precision, micro-, and nano-machining technologies in a wide variety of modern industries. A new slip-line model for machining with a rounded-edge tool and its associated hodograp...
Part II of the present study quantitatively analyzes orthogonal metal cutting processes based on the new slip-line model proposed in Part I. The applicable range of the model is illustrated, followed by an explanation of the non-unique nature of the model. It is suggested that the tool edge roundness be comprehensively defined by four variables. Na...
By effectively integrating a recently developed universal slip-line model with Oxley's predictive machining theory, a new analytical predictive model for machining with restricted contact grooved tools has been developed and presented in this paper. A computational flow chart is provided to illustrate the method of integration. The cutting forces a...
Given the growing number of applications of groove-type chip breaker tools in modern machining, it is becoming increasingly important to study the tool–chip contact on the tool secondary rake face. This type of tool–chip contact significantly changes not only the state of stresses in the plastic deformation region, but also changes the distribution...
The forces, chip thickness, and natural tool–chip contact length in machining with a double-rake-angled tool are predicted in Part II of the present study. It is revealed that in comparison with a single-rake-angled tool, a double-rake-angled tool increases the forces, especially the thrust force. However, the increase in chip thickness and tool–ch...
This paper presents analytical predictions and experimental validation of a recently developed universal slip-line model for machining with restricted contact cut-away tools. Three important machining parameters, i.e. the cutting force ratio, chip thickness, and chip back-flow angle, are predicted on the basis of: (1) the universal slip-line model;...
In rigid-plastic slip-line theory, once the geometry of the slip-line field is established, the stress state of the plastic region (including the primary and secondary deformation zones) in restricted contact machining is governed by the hydrostatic pressure PA (at a point on the intersection line of the shear plane and the work surface to be machi...
A universal slip-line model and the corresponding hodograph for two-dimensional machining which can account for chip curl and chip back-flow when machining with a restricted contact tool are presented in this paper. Six major slip-line models previously developed for machining are briefly reviewed. It is shown that all the six models are special ca...
This paper presents a new predictive model for chip back-flow angle in machining with restricted contact grooved tools. This model is derived from the recently established universal slip-line model for machining with restricted contact cut-away tools. A comprehensive definition of the chip back-flow angle is first developed, and based on this, a qu...
Recent definitions of machining performance have been based on technological machining performance measures such as cutting forces, tool-life/tool-wear, chip-form/chip breakability, surface roughness, etc. However, modeling work on these performance measures has so far been characterized by isolated treatment of each of these measures. The modeling...
The main objectives of this research are to identify and investigate difficult concepts in the preparation and taking of the FE (Fundamentals of Engineering) /EIT (Engineering-In-Training) examination and to develop an effective learning curriculum to assist students in their mastery of t he FE/EIT exam requirements and successfully continue in the...
Citations
... Misconceptions are often found in science learning, even in conventional educational practices (Brault Foisy et al., 2015;Tompo et al., 2016). The occurrence of misconceptions in science learning is higher in the group of beginner learners (Vosniadou & Skopeliti, 2017;Liu & Fang, 2021). In the education curriculum in Indonesia, science is officially taught for the first time in the fourth grade of elementary school, making scientific concepts new to them. ...
![[object Object]](https://i1.rgstatic.net/ii/profile.image/11431281083735415-1662746478087_Q64/Gang-Liu-19.jpg)
... Jayaram describes using the Jigsaw technique to have expert teams develop a [3] poster around the topic of discovering a future direction for the automotive industry [10]. Fang and Stewardson presented a modified Jigsaw technique where the instructor only meets with one person from the team and not the whole team [11]. Cheville et al. successfully applied the Jigsaw technique to a Capstone Design course [12]. ...
... The need for delivery of skill and knowledge on a continual basis, harmonizes well with the continuous improvement concepts that are the key in lean systems. Initially used as improvement mechanisms for manufacturing, lean thinking has recently been used in other approaches within curriculum development and delivery of education within certain courses in a collaborative fashion (2). ...
![[object Object]](https://i1.rgstatic.net/ii/profile.image/272397861388294-1441956119585_Q64/Karina-Hauser.jpg)
... Thetechniquesusedforformulatingthemethodologyofthis study include data mining approaches like regression analysis [26][27][28][29] and clustering [30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40]. In order to obtain a proper conceptual understanding of these methods, the different ways in which they can be applied has been considered. ...
![[object Object]](https://i1.rgstatic.net/ii/profile.image/332791624552449-1456355114684_Q64/Shaobo-Huang-3.jpg)
... The preliminary study ascertains that having visualization tools is important to aid in the students understanding especially in supporting for engineering concepts visualization. This is consistent with few research conducted previously that demonstration, animation and simulation tool will assist students' visualization skill and understand the engineering concepts better [3][4][5]. In traditional learning, most of the students depend heavily on the textbook, lecture note and power point slides as main course materials. ...
... The findings from the pilot study are consistent with other scholars findings. Research from Fang claimed that a good visualization and demonstration tool can help students in concept understanding and prevent misunderstanding [11], [12]. Besides that, research by Mandal indicated that using animation and video as a supporting tool in engineering classroom will also motivate the students' learning interest [13]. ...
... The research about university students' difficulties regarding the angular momentum reveal that students do not recognize its IOP Publishing doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1929/1/012008 2 vector nature and they think that it is only applicable in cases where there is rotation. Moreover, students show difficulties in arguing about the conservation of angular momentum [2,4,7,8]. ...
![[object Object]](https://i1.rgstatic.net/ii/profile.image/278795044048906-1443481326533_Q64/Jacek-Uziak.jpg)
... Another methodological gap relates to the role of sketching in collaboration. Despite the acknowledged importance of sketching (Hua, 2019;Purcell & Gero, 1998) and its many uses in design (Brun et al., 2016;Eckert et al., 2012;Uziak & Fang, 2018), the analysis of collaborative sketching often resorts to second-hand information. As research data, sketched visualisations can be replaced by verbal transcripts and protocols, and designers' visual attention has been observed rather than measured. ...
... Padiotis and Mikropoulos (2010) have applied SOLO taxonomy to understand science knowledge of secondary school students in an educational virtual environment. Fang and Tajvidi (2018) have investigated the effects of computer simulation and animation on cognitive processes of the students in an undergraduate engineering course by using the Bloom's taxonomy. Motivation has been measured by Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (Pintrich et al., 1991) and Hsia et al. (2016) have examined the motivation of students using online peer-feedback in a dance course. ...
![[object Object]](https://i1.rgstatic.net/ii/profile.image/273670698434577-1442259587835_Q64/Moe-Tajvidi.jpg)
... For instance, in the experimental study of Reychav and Wu (2016), students in groups all have access to operate their own mobile devices during collaborative inquiry work. Besides, in some situations, students are allocated only one VM in a group (e.g., Ha & Fang, 2018). This is similar to the PM usage during the collaborative inquiry. ...
