Nigel Jackson’s research while affiliated with University of Plymouth and other places

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Publications (23)


Social Media in the UK Election Campaigns 2008-2014
  • Chapter

December 2015

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35 Reads

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12 Citations

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Nigel Jackson

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Figure 4: Scatterplot showing mean interactivity for UK parties in 2008 & 2009 
Interactivity and Branding: Public Political Communication as a Marketing Tool
  • Article
  • Full-text available

December 2014

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1,127 Reads

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40 Citations

Journal of Political Marketing

Online platforms are increasingly used as a means to present brand characteristics to key target groups. Within a political context, websites can act as a shop front from which parties or candidates can advertise their policies and personnel. The increasing use of more interactive forms of communication informs visitors about the overall brand character of the host. This article explores the impact on branding of interactivity by analyzing the online activities undertaken by UK parties and their members elected to the House of Commons during the period 2007 to 2010. Through a process of creating narratives for each of the brands analyzed, based upon a content analysis of the websites and other online presences, this article identifies what characteristics the online shop front is designed to project. This article finds overall that interactivity within online environments is becoming one aspect of the branding of parties, though this is in limited forms and linked more to a marketing communication strategy than seeking to involve or understand site visitors. Members of Parliament who use social networking sites or weblogs, in contrast, have a developed i-branding strategy that enables them to present a strongly interactive brand personality to visitors to their online presences, offering impressions of them as accessible and effective representatives.

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General election marketing—selling a can of beans, building a favours bank or managing an event?

August 2013

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20 Reads

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2 Citations

Journal of Public Affairs

This paper applies three marketing approaches to identify a possible framework for analysing the 2010 general election. The first approach to be assessed is transactional, which is the traditional view of political marketing. The second approach is relationship marketing, of which there is some evidence that it has applied to politics. The third approach, experiential, has not yet been applied to the political context. As this is an exploratory research project, the data are collected from one small geographical area, Devon. Interviews were conducted with candidates in the 12 seats in this county to identify which, if any, of these three marketing approaches might apply to UK general elections. The article, argues that a hybrid approach to political marketing, drawing on all three approaches can potentially offer researchers a framework for understanding general election campaigns. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.


Reaching Inward Not Outward: Marketing via the Internet at the UK 2010 General Election

April 2013

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43 Reads

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30 Citations

Journal of Political Marketing

The Internet has been to date used as a space for simple promotion by political parties; websites present an opportunity for the delivery of non-mediated communication directly to the online audience and nothing more. However, new patterns in usage during campaigns, particularly that of Barack Obama, aided by the technological innovations that fall under the umbrella of Web 2.0, offer new models of online political communication. Through an analysis of the websites and linked online presences of six parties that stood across the UK at the 2010 General Election, we find a dual strategy for Internet campaigning emerging. The persuasive traditions of electioneering remain a feature; however, the key emergent function is one of internal marketing to party supporters and activists. Large sections of party websites are being dedicated to harnessing supporters and converting them to being donators, promoters, and campaigners both online and offline. This suggests that the Internet is increasingly embedded within election communication and online communication strategies are becoming a feature of most of the parties' marketing communication mix.



Informing, engaging, mobilizing or interacting: Searching for a European model of web campaigning

September 2011

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209 Reads

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256 Citations

European Journal of Communication

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Eva Johanna Schweitzer

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This study presents data from content analyses of the websites of all parties that stood in the 2009 European parliamentary elections in France, Germany, Great Britain and Poland. It cross-nationally examines the main functions of the websites, the adoption of Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 features, and the political and cultural factors that determine parties’ online communication. The findings show that while the main website function varies across countries, Web 1.0 is still the dominant mode of campaigning. Moreover, offline inequalities within and between nations determine differences in parties’ individual online strategies: specifically, major parties in states with long histories of democracy and EU membership lead the way and offer more interactive and innovative modes of campaigning. On the other hand, minor parties, particularly in Poland, remain in a more Web 1.0, information-heavy mode of communication. This supports the so-called normalization thesis on both the meso and the macro level.


Table 1 : Impression Management Typology 
Table 4 : References within Tweets Linked to Strategic Uses by MPs 
Microblogging, Constituency Service and Impression Management: UK MPs and the Use of Twitter

March 2011

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2,231 Reads

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376 Citations

Journal of Legislative Studies

Twitter, a microblogging site which allows users to deliver statements, thoughts and links in 140 characters to followers as well as a wider Internet audience, is the latest online communications technology adopted by MPs. Assessing the use by early adopters, this article considers which MPs are most likely to use Twitter (for example, tweeting), and how. Content analysis of MPs' Twitter feeds was conducted, and personal and political characteristics identified which may influence use. The data suggested that of the six characteristics tested, gender, party and seniority had most impact on adoption. Applying Jones and Pittman's 1982 typology, there is clear evidence that MPs use Twitter as a tool of impression management. Constituency service is a secondary function of the use of Twitter by MPs. Where MPs use Twitter as part of their constituency role it is to promote their local activity. This article notes that a small group of MPs use Twitter as a regular communication channel, but most are only occasionally dipping their toe into the microbloggersphere.


The Member for Cyberspace: E-Representation and MPs in the UK

January 2011

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36 Reads

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2 Citations

This chapter offers a framework for considering whether the Internet might be facilitating the evolution of e-representation. The chapter starts by considering the meaning of representation; it then considers what factors influence changes in the concept of representation. We argue that, potentially, the Internet may be facilitating a model of representation based not on the geographic constituency, but upon common interest. The chapter assesses the use of four Internet modalities by UK Members of Parliaments (MPs): websites, e-newsletters, weblogs, and social networking sites. We suggest that there is evidence of parallel e-representation, where MPs use the Internet to enhance their relationship with geographical constituents. We also find the basis for a separate form of e-representation based around the development of an e-constituency of those with shared policy interests. We suggest that by creating a more flexible model, e-representation may add significant nuance to the direct versus representative democracy debate.


Elections 2.0: Comparing E-Campaigns in France, Germany, Great Britain and the United States

January 2011

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86 Reads

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24 Citations

Past analyses of the role of the Internet in politics have described it as an underused tool in election campaigns (de Landtsheer et al., 2005; Kluver et al., 2007; Lusoli, 2005). Most studies find that party and candidate websites are created mainly to provide a space for offline material to be posted for viewing in a non-mediated environment (Morris, 1999). In contrast, elements which allow interaction are usually eschewed as these are said to detract from the core functions of campaigning and lead to a loss of message control (Stromer-Galley, 2000). Scholars have therefore come to postulate a normalisation of cyberspace (Resnick, 1998; Margolis & Resnick, 2000). Broadly, this includes two interlinked conclusions. Firstly, the normalisation of power relations which follows from observations that those parties with the greatest amount of resources have the most sophisticated web presences and lead innovations (Gibson et al., 2003). And secondly, there is the normalisation of political communication as offline traditions of campaigning override any Internet-specific style of electioneering that may encourage dialogue between candidates or parties and those whose votes they seek (for an overview see Schweitzer, 2008).


Citations (21)


... This is important because studies show that citizens' voting behaviours are closely connected to their "news diet" and how they use the internet and/or social media for information purposes (Mosca & Quaranta, 2017, p. 162). Moreover, Facebook has been the most important social media platform for political parties in Europe for more than a decade now (e.g., Klinger & Russmann, 2017;Lilleker et al., 2015;Russmann, forthcoming) and a pivotal campaigning tool . Analysing electoral materials manage their relationships with the voters, Facebook is a perfect fit as it is well suited for managing these relationships-much better than Twitter, for example, which is mainly used by parties for reaching out to journalists and other stakeholders (Valentini, 2019). ...

Reference:

Campaigning on Facebook in the 2019 European Parliament Election: Informing, Interacting with, and Mobilising Voters
Social Media in the UK Election Campaigns 2008-2014
  • Citing Chapter
  • December 2015

... It is the avowedly persistent decline of the public's engagement with formal politics that justifies political marketing scholars' calls for the continuing need for deeper emotional engagement with the electorate (among others: Henneberg and O'Shaughnessy 2009;Lees-Marshment 2014;Abid, Harrigan, and Roy 2021). While the online presentation of politicians has been highly influenced by a personality-driven communication style (Stanyer 2013;Metz, Kruikemeier, and Lecheler 2019) that builds on authenticity, it is still challenging to build a long-term relationship with constituents (Jackson and Lilleker 2009;Henneberg and O'Shaughnessy 2009;Lilleker and Jackson 2014). What this paper explores is the potential of podcasting to alleviate some of these identified burdens. ...

Brand management and relationship marketing in online environments
  • Citing Chapter
  • January 2014

... The most recent research from an e-representation perspective found adherence to an e-representation model was limited to detailing their work within the legislature on behalf of their constituency and specific constituents or groups thereof . However studies assessing the use of websites, enewsletters, weblogs and social networking profiles found different platforms potentiate different communication strategies (Jackson & Lilleker, 2011a). The more traditional platforms and tools such as websites and e-newsletters are, on the whole, push communication tools designed to transmit information out to browsers or subscribers. ...

The Member for Cyberspace: E-Representation and MPs in the UK
  • Citing Article
  • January 2011

... Analisis konten media sosial menunjukkan bahwa jenis konten yang paling efektif dalam membangun citra positif adalah yang beragam dan informatif. Konten-konten ini tidak hanya mencakup pidato dan kegiatan formal, tetapi juga interaksi informal, seperti kunjungan lapangan, pertemuan dengan masyarakat, dan aktivitas sosial lainnya yang menunjukkan kedekatan dan kesetiaan kepada rakyat (Jackson & Lilleker, 2011). ...

Political campaigning, elections and the internet: Comparing the US, UK, France and Germany
  • Citing Article
  • March 2013

... Given constant social media development, it is no surprise that political parties and politicians seek communication with voters via the Internet and social media, especially in the election campaigns (Lilleker and Jackson 2013;Skovsgaard and Van Dalen 2013;Ridge-Newman et al. 2020;Jakob and Schwartz 2022). ...

Reaching Inward Not Outward: Marketing via the Internet at the UK 2010 General Election
  • Citing Article
  • April 2013

Journal of Political Marketing

... With this practitioners could therefore choose more dialogical and transformational approaches to achieve and maintain relationships with political consumers over the long term. Lastly experiential marketing, suggested by Jackson [14], focuses on involving the consumer in an active experience with the brand. Voters are not just spectators but feel part of the event. ...

General election marketing—selling a can of beans, building a favours bank or managing an event?
  • Citing Article
  • August 2013

Journal of Public Affairs

... According to Okan et al. (2014), social networking has become significant among political parties and political candidates to obtain more support and feedback, discuss ideas and opinions, and participate in public debates. Many scholars have studied the use of the Internet for political communication purposes (Blumler & Kavanagh, 1999;Hill & Hughes, 1998;Jones, 1998;Lev-On, 2011;Lilleker & Jackson, 2010;Livingstone, 1999;McChesney, 2000;Mcnamara, 2008;Norris, 2001;Schweitzer, 2008;Towner & Dulio, 2012;Vaccari, 2008). ...

Towards a More Participatory Style of Election Campaigning: The Impact of Web 2.0 on the UK 2010 General Election
  • Citing Article
  • August 2010

Policy & Internet

... The use of email, along with the increase in budget allocations for MP constituency expenditures (compare Ward, 2000, at £50 000, to Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority, 2016, allows for more frequent contact, as well as a larger quantity of contact (House of Modernisation Committee, 2007, ev. 74;Jackson, 2003;Korris, 2013, p.20). A final limitation of Rawlings's study is that it does not attempt to address live and in-person interaction, which is what this thesis will analyze (see Chapters 3-6). ...

Vote Winner or a Nuisance: Email and Elected Politicians' Relationship with Their Constituents
  • Citing Article
  • November 2005

Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing

... En consecuencia, las mujeres políticas analizadas realizan un bajo uso del potencial que brinda esta red social como instrumento para fomentar la comunicación directa con la ciudadanía. Este resultado está en consonancia con investigaciones anteriores (Coleman & Blumler, 2009;Cioni & Marinelli, 2010;Jackson & Lilleker, 2011;Bentivegna, 2012;Grussel & Nord, 2012;Alonso-Muñoz et al., 2016) y refuerza, por lo tanto, esta tendencia de escasa interacción con la ciudadanía. ...

Microblogging, Constituency Service and Impression Management: UK MPs and the Use of Twitter

Journal of Legislative Studies

... This suggests a gradual convergence between new and traditional parties, with a growing similarity in their electoral campaign strategies. Nevertheless, to ascertain the existence of such a convergence or, as Lilleker et al. (2011) put it, an equalization in the campaign model, it is essential to conduct a longitudinal analysis. ...

Informing, engaging, mobilizing or interacting: Searching for a European model of web campaigning
  • Citing Article
  • September 2011

European Journal of Communication