Naranjan S. Dhalla's research while affiliated with St. Boniface Hospital Research and other places
What is this page?
This page lists the scientific contributions of an author, who either does not have a ResearchGate profile, or has not yet added these contributions to their profile.
It was automatically created by ResearchGate to create a record of this author's body of work. We create such pages to advance our goal of creating and maintaining the most comprehensive scientific repository possible. In doing so, we process publicly available (personal) data relating to the author as a member of the scientific community.
If you're a ResearchGate member, you can follow this page to keep up with this author's work.
If you are this author, and you don't want us to display this page anymore, please let us know.
It was automatically created by ResearchGate to create a record of this author's body of work. We create such pages to advance our goal of creating and maintaining the most comprehensive scientific repository possible. In doing so, we process publicly available (personal) data relating to the author as a member of the scientific community.
If you're a ResearchGate member, you can follow this page to keep up with this author's work.
If you are this author, and you don't want us to display this page anymore, please let us know.
Publications (693)
Angiotensin (Ang II ) is formed by the action of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) in the renin- angiotensin system. This hormone is known to induce cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure and its actions are mediated by the interaction of both pro- and anti- hypertrophic Ang II receptors ( AT1R and AT2R). Ang II is also metabolized by ACE 2 to Ang...
Although β1-adrenoceptor (β1-AR) signal transduction, which maintains cardiac function, is downregulated in failing hearts, the mechanisms for such a defect in heart failure are not fully understood. Since cardiac hypertrophy is invariably associated with heart failure, it is possible that the loss of β1-AR mechanisms in failing heart occurs due to...
Various protein kinases including protein kinase A (PKA), Ca2+-calmodulin kinase (CaMK), phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase C (PKC) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK: ERK1/2, p38-MAPK and JNK) are integral part of different signal transduction pathways, which are known to regulate cardiac structure, function and metabolism. I...
Although acute exposure of the heart to angiotensin (Ang II) produces physiological cardiac hypertrophy and chronic exposure results in pathological hypertrophy, the signal transduction mechanisms for these effects are of complex nature. It is now evident that the hypertrophic response is mediated by the activation of Ang type 1 receptors (AT1R), w...
The activation of phospholipase C (PLC) is thought to have a key role in the cardiomyocyte response to several different hypertrophic agents such as norepinephrine, angiotensin II and endothelin-1. PLC activity results in the generation of diacylglycerol and inositol trisphosphate, which are downstream signal transducers for the expression of fetal...
Ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury is well-known to be associated with impaired cardiac function, massive arrhythmias, marked alterations in cardiac metabolism and irreversible ultrastructural changes in the heart. Two major mechanisms namely oxidative stress and intracellular Ca2+-overload are considered to explain I/R-induced injury to the heart....
Heart failure is invariably associated with cardiac hypertrophy and impaired cardiac performance. Although several drugs have been developed to delay the progression of heart failure, none of the existing interventions have shown beneficial effects in reducing morbidity and mortality. In order to determine specific targets for future drug developme...
Background: Repeated episodes of hypoxia by coronary artery ligation, precondition the myocardium to adapt against ischemic cardiac damage and arrhythmias. This case aims to highlight the role of hypoxia induced adaptation in exercise tolerance. Case and methods: A male physician aged 77 years, presented with COVID-19 on April 17, 2021. Acute phase...
The activation of the α1-adrenoceptor-(α1-AR) by norepinephrine results in the G-protein (Gqα) mediated increase in the phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C (PLC) activity. The byproducts of PLC hydrolytic activity, namely, 1,2-diacylglycerol and inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate, are important downstream signal transducers for increased protein sy...
It is now well established that ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury is associated with the compromised recovery of cardiac contractile function. Such an adverse effect of I/R injury in the heart is attributed to the development of oxidative stress and intracellular Ca2+-overload, which are known to induce remodeling of subcellular organelles such as...
It is now well known that oxidative stress promotes lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation, activation of proteases, fragmentation of DNA and alteration in gene expression for producing myocardial cell damage, whereas its actions for the induction of fibrosis, necrosis and apoptosis are considered to result in the loss of cardiomyocytes in different...
Extensive research work has been carried out to define the exact significance and contribution of regulated necrosis-like cell death program, such as necroptosis to cardiac ischemic injury. This cell damaging process plays a critical role in the pathomechanisms of myocardial infarction (MI) and post-infarction heart failure (HF). Accordingly, it ha...
Norepinephrine (NE) is known to mediate cardiomyocyte hypertrophy through the G protein coupled a1 -adrenoceptor (a1 -AR) and the activation of the phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C (PLC). Since the by-products of PLC activity are important downstream signal transducers for cardiac hypertrophy, the role of and the regulatory mechanisms invo...
Cardiomyocyte apoptosis has now been identified in a wide variety of patients with heart failure as well as in failing hearts due to experimentally induced pathophysiological situations such as myocardial infarction, hemodynamic alterations, and different types of cardiomyopathies. Several mechanisms including oxidative stress, inflammation and int...
Ischemic heart disease (IHD) due to reduced coronary blood flow over a prolonged period as well as reperfusion of the ischemic myocardium are associated with irreversible cellular damage and contractile failure. Although several major mechanisms including inflammation, oxidative stress and intracellular Ca²⁺-overload have been identified to induce...
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, which prevent the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II, are well-known for the treatments of cardiovascular diseases, such as heart failure, hypertension and acute coronary syndrome. Several of these inhibitors including captopril, enalapril, ramipril, zofenopril and imidapril attenuate vasoc...
It is now well-known that heart failure is associated with cardiac remodeling, metabolic derangements, Ca²⁺-handling abnormalities, and cardiac dysfunction. Most of the information regarding the pathogenesis of heart failure has been derived from patients who were receiving a wide variety of cardioactive drugs, and thus it is difficult to identify...
The well-being of the global population has been challenged with the epidemic of obesity. Obesity is a complex and multifactorial health hazard. While obesity itself can be considered as a metabolic disease that reduces quality of life and life expectancy, the occurrence of a variety of obesity-related complications including cardiovascular disease...
Excessive food intake over a prolonged period is known to result in obesity, a risk factor for heart disease, associated with derangements of myocardial metabolism. Furthermore, food restriction has been shown to reduce obesity, attenuate metabolic changes in the myocardium and improve hemodynamic performance. This article is therefore intended to...
![KCl-induced and ATP-induced changes in [Ca 2+ ] i in cardiomyocytes and...](publication/355177973/figure/tbl1/AS:1078380313223184@1634117310544/KCl-induced-and-ATP-induced-changes-in-Ca-2-i-in-cardiomyocytes-and-sarcolemmal-SL_Q320.jpg)
By virtue of their regulatory role in various metabolic and biosynthetic pathways for energy status and cellular integrity, both hydro-soluble and lipo-soluble vitamins are considered to be involved in maintaining cardiovascular function in health and disease. Deficiency of some vitamins such as vitamin A, B6, folic acid, C, D, and E has been shown...
The development of heart failure under various pathological conditions such as myocardial infarction (MI), hypertension and diabetes are accompanied by adverse cardiac remodeling and cardiac dysfunction. Since heart function is mainly determined by coordinated activities of different subcellular organelles including sarcolemma, sarcoplasmic reticul...
Standard heart failure (HF) therapies have failed to improve cardiac function or survival in HF patients with right ventricular (RV) dysfunction suggesting a divergence in the molecular mechanisms of RV vs. left ventricular (LV) failure. Here we aimed to investigate interventricular differences in sarcomeric regulation and function in experimental...
Although heart failure due to a wide variety of pathological stimuli including myocardial infarction, pressure overload and volume overload is associated with cardiac hypertrophy, the exact reasons for the transition of cardiac hypertrophy to heart failure are not well defined. Since circulating levels of several vasoactive hormones including catec...
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the global incidence of obesity has nearly tripled since 1975; more than 1.9 billion adults were overweight and 650 million of those were obese in 2016.
Cardiometabolic diseases (CMDs) are metabolic diseases (e.g., obesity, diabetes, atherosclerosis, rare genetic metabolic diseases, etc.) associated with cardiac pathologies. Pathophysiology of most CMDs involves increased production of reactive oxygen species and impaired antioxidant defense systems, resulting in cardiac oxidative stress (OxS). To...
This study examined the effects of ischemic preconditioning (IP) on the ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) induced injury in normal and hypertrophied hearts. Cardiac hypertrophy in rabbits was induced by L-thyroxine (0.5 mg/kg/day for 16 days). Hearts with or without IP (3 cycles of 5 min ischemia and 10 min reperfusion) were subjected to I/R (60 min ische...
This book discusses the organ-specific systemic manifestations of COVID-19. The initial chapters of the book review the origin and evolution of the coronaviruses, followed by pathogenesis and immune response during COVID-19 infection. The book also provides insight into the role of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 in the onset of severe acute respir...
Global health has been challenged with the dawning of the era of the obesity epidemic, and thus as a consequence, strategies to reduce obesity have become public health priorities. According to the United Nations, obesity has been identified as a concern for achieving Sustainable Development Goals. Obesity is a serious health problem with an increa...
Volume-overload upon inducing arteriovenous shunt was found to produce sex-dependent changes in cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. These alterations are accompanied by sex-dependent changes in β-adrenoceptor (AR)—guanine protein—adenylyl cyclase complex in the heart. Unlike females, prolonged exposure of animals to volume-overload resulted in h...
Volume overload induced by arteriovenous shunt for 4 and 16 weeks has been shown to produce sex-specific alterations in cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure, respectively. These changes were accompanied by sex-dependent alterations in the pro- and anti-apoptotic protein content and cardiomyocyte apoptosis in the heart. Cardiac hypertrophy in both...
Cardiac hypertrophy is an adaptive response of the heart to hemodynamic overload that is initially designed to maintain cardiac functioning, but prolonged hypertrophy becomes detrimental and results in cardiac dysfunction and heart failure (HF). Population studies have indicated that men and women are different in their risk and etiology in develop...
Although the presence of cardiac dysfunction and cardiomyopathy in chronic diabetes has been recognized, the pathophysiology of diabetes-induced metabolic and subcellular changes as well as the therapeutic approaches for the prevention of diabetic cardiomyopathy are not fully understood. Cardiac dysfunction in chronic diabetes has been shown to be...
To test if magnitudes of the beneficial actions of CO 2 water bath therapy on blood flow and vascular density are dependent upon temperature, ischemia in the hind limb of rats was induced by occluding the left femoral artery for 2 weeks and the animals were exposed to water bath therapy with or without CO 2 at 34 or 41 °C for 4 weeks (20 min treatm...
Various heart diseases such as genetically-determined heart failure, acute myocardial infarction, ischemia-reperfusion injury and catecholamine-induced cardiomyopathies are associated with cardiac dysfunction, cellular damage, subcellular derangements and metabolic alterations. Since increase in myocardial Ca2+ is accompanied by these abnormalities...
Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of mortality in men and women. Unfortunately, women have traditionally been excluded from clinical trials, and female animals have been used less or sex was not reported in basic research studies. Until recently, consideration of both sexes was not required in clinical and preclinical studies focusing o...
According to the World Health Organization, the epidemic of global obesity has nearly tripled since 1975. In 2016, more than 1.9 billion adults were overweight, over 650 million of which were obese. Being overweight and obese has been linked to a number of non-communicable, chronic diseases. Pathophysiology of Obesity-Induced Health Complications i...
Obesity is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD) in adults as well as in obese children. This book will provide a description of the impact of obesity on the cardiovascular system and increased predisposition to CVD. It will identify the major biochemical mechanisms that lead to the occurrence of myocardial abnormalities and v...
Acute myocardial infarction (MI) is associated with marked elevation of plasma vasoactive hormones, ventricular arrhythmias, scar formation in the ischemic portion of left ventricle (LV) and hypertrophy of the viable LV as well as the right ventricle (RV). Particularly, elevated levels of plasma catecholamines and angiotensin II activate their memb...
The heart is capable of responding to stressful situations by increasing muscle mass which is broadly defined as cardiac hypertrophy. This phenomenon minimizes ventricular wall stress for the heart undergoing a greater than normal workload. At initial stages, cardiac hypertrophy is associated with normal or enhanced cardiac function and is consider...
Ischemic heart disease (IHD) is a major cause of mortality and disability and is the most common type of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Reduced myocardial perfusion by obstruction in coronary arteries due to progressive accumulation of fibrotic material/plaque in the vessel wall leads to the development of IHD. Cardiovascular risk factors such as at...
Effective therapy of hypertension represents a key strategy for reducing the burden of cardiovascular disease and its associated mortality. The significance of voltage dependent L-type Ca²⁺ channels to Ca²⁺ influx, and of their regulatory mechanisms in the development of heart disease, is well established. A wide variety of L-type Ca²⁺ channel inhi...
Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is an important lipid molecule for signal transduction in cell proliferation. Although the effects of LPA on vascular smooth muscle (VSM) cell growth have been reported previously, the underlying mechanisms of its action are not fully understood. The present study was undertaken to investigate the effects of some inhibit...
Remote ischemic conditioning of the heart (including pre-, per-, and post-conditioning) is a phenomenon where short episodes of non-lethal ischemia in the distant vessels within the heart or distant organs from the heart protects the myocardium against sustained ischemia/reperfusion injury. Several pathways have been proposed to be involved in the...
Although the sympathetic nervous system plays an important role in the regulation of cardiac function, the overactivation of the sympathetic nervous system under stressful conditions including diabetes has been shown to result in the excessive production of circulating catecholamines as well as an increase in the myocardial concentration of catecho...
This book highlights the multifaceted roles of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in modulating normal cellular and molecular mechanisms during the development of different types of heart disease. Each chapter in the book deals with the role that altered redox homeostasis plays in the pathophysiology of heart disease. In addition, the book explains how...
This book bridges the gap between fundamental and translational research in the area of heart disease. It describes a multidisciplinary approach, and demonstrates biochemical mechanisms associated with dysregulation of redox signaling, which leads heart disease. Presenting recent studies on improved forms of ROS scavenging enzymes; specific inhibit...
An excessive amount of catecholamines produce arrhythmias, but the exact mechanisms of this action are not fully understood. For this purpose, Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with or without atenolol, a β1-adrenoceptor blocker (20 mg/kg per day), for 15 days followed by injections of epinephrine for cumulative doses of 4 to 128 μg/kg. Another grou...
Regulation of cardiac fatty acid metabolism is central to the development of cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. We investigated the effects of select fatty acids on the expression of genes involved in immediate early as well as inflammatory and hypertrophic responses in adult rat cardiomyocytes. Cardiac remodeling begins with upregulation of im...
Following heterotopic transplantation, the rat heart undergoes atrophy and exhibits delayed cardiac relaxation without any changes in contraction and systolic Ca2+ transients. Furthermore, the sarcoplasmic reticular Ca2+ uptake and release activities were reduced and Ca2+ influx through L-type Ca2+ channels was increased in the atrophied heart. Sin...
Although ischemic heart disease is invariably associated with marked activation of sympathetic nervous system, elevated levels of circulating catecholamines and lethal ventricular arrhythmias, the mechanisms of arrhythmogenesis due to myocardial ischemia are not fully understood. Since catecholamines are known to produce stimulatory effects in the...
By virtue of their actions on NF-κB, an inflammatory nuclear transcription factor, various cytokines have been documented to play important regulatory roles in determining cardiac function under both physiological and pathophysiological conditions. Several cytokines including TNF-α, TGF-β, and different interleukins such as IL-1 IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, a...
The effects of CO2 water-bath therapy in the hind limb of diabetic animals with or without peripheral ischemia were examined. Diabetes was induced in rats by streptozotocin (65 mg/kg) and the animals were divided into three groups. After 4 weeks, peripheral ischemia was induced by ligation of the femoral artery for 2 weeks in two groups (Diabetic I...
Although CO2 is produced during the oxidation of different substrates in all types of cells, the role of this gas in the regulation of cellular function is not clearly understood. Since changes in several signal transduction as well as apoptotic, anti-apoptotic, and other proteins are known to modify cellular function, we investigated if some of th...
This book provides a comprehensive overview of the multifaceted field of protease in the cellular environment and focuses on the recently elucidated functions of complex proteolytic systems in physiology and pathophysiology. Given the breadth and depth of information covered in the respective contributions, the book will be immensely useful for res...
Using a multidisciplinary approach, this book describes the biochemical mechanisms associated with dysregulation of proteases and the resulting pathophysiological consequences. It highlights the role and regulation of different types of proteases as well as their synthetic and endogenous inhibitors. The role of proteases was initially thought to be...
Peripheral artery disease is a major circulatory disorder, which is characterized by obstruction of arteries mainly due to atherosclerosis and thrombosis, leading to reduced blood supply and ischemia in the hind limb. On the basis of their actions on blood constituents and blood vessels, several interventions such as antiatherosclerotic, antithromb...
Although plasma levels of lysophosphatidylglycerol (LPG) are increased in hypertension, its role in the pathogenesis of vascular defects is not clear. In view of the importance of Ca2+-overload in causing vascular smooth muscle (VSM) dysfunction, the action of LPG on [Ca2+]i in cultured A10 VSM cell line was examined by using Fura 2-AM acetoxymethy...
In this study, we investigated the effects of CO2 water-bath therapy on blood flow and angiogenesis in the ischemic hind limb as well as some plasma angiogenic factors in peripheral ischemic model. The hind limb ischemia was induced by occluding the femoral artery for 2 weeks in rats and treated with or without CO2 water-bath therapy at 37°C for 4...
This book bridges the gap between fundamental research and biomedical and pharmacological applications on proteases. It represents a comprehensive overview of the multifaceted field of proteases in cellular environment and highlights the recently elucidated functions of complex proteolytic systems in different diseases. Several established investig...
Background:
Patients with diabetes mellitus have an increased risk of mortality due to cardiovascular complications. Supplementation with specific sulphur-containing amino acids is rapidly emerging as a possible therapeutic adjuvant for diabetes and associated cardiovascular complications.
Observations:
It is well known that oxidative stress pla...
This study aimed to explore the potential contribution of myofibrils to contractile dysfunction in Ca²⁺-paradox hearts. Isolated rat hearts were perfused with Krebs–Henseleit solution (Control), followed by Ca²⁺-depletion, and then Ca²⁺-repletion after Ca²⁺-depletion (Ca²⁺-paradox) by Langendorff method. During heart perfusion left ventricular deve...
Background:
Various physiological and pathological stimuli can hypersensitize the sympathetic nervous system resulting in a substantial release of catecholamines (CA) and consequent alterations in excitation-contraction coupling and excitation-transcription coupling.
Observations:
It has been shown that oxidation products of CA, rather than CA t...
Long-lasting ischemia can result in cell loss; however, repeated episodes of brief ischemia increase the resistance of the heart against deleterious effects of subsequent prolonged ischemic insult and promote cell survival. Traditionally, it is believed that the supply of blood to the ischemic heart is associated with release of cytokines, activati...
This book covers the latest developments in the therapeutic implications of angiogenesis, ranging from angiogenesis in the brain, angiogenesis in cancer, angiogenesis’ role in atherosclerosis and heart disease as well as metabolic disorders and peripheral vascular disease. The book is comprehensive in its coverage of angiogenesis in a diverse set o...
Ischemic heart disease is caused by obstruction of the coronary arteries that reduces myocardial perfusion. The most efficient way to restore blood supply to the ischemic myocardium is reperfusion of the affected area. However, if reperfusion is initiated too late, it enhances ischemia-reperfusion damage to the heart. Oxidative stress is one of the...
As cardiomyocytes have a limited capability for proliferation, renewal, and repair, the loss of heart cells followed by replacement with fibrous tissue is considered to result in the development of ventricular dysfunction and progression to heart failure (HF). The loss of cardiac myocytes in HF has been traditionally believed to occur mainly due to...
Na+-K+ ATPase is primarily localized in the plasma membrane and occurs in the form of α-subunits (α-1, -2, and -3 isoforms) and β-subunits (β-1 and -2 isoforms) mainly. The inhibition of this enzyme by cardiac glycosides such as ouabain has been shown to raise the intracellular concentration of Na+ and promote the increase in cardiac contractile fo...
The plasma membrane Ca2+/Mg2+ ecto-ATPase is an acidic glycoprotein, which hydrolyzes different nucleoside triphosphates and is activated by millimolar concentrations of various divalent cations. Unlike transport ATPases, it does not require Mg-ATP as a substrate and is different from the mitochondrial, myofibrillar, and sarcoplasmic reticulum ATPa...
The biological membranes of cellular organization enfold an important group of membrane proteins called the ATPases, which are not only versatile in maintaining chemical gradient and electrical potential across the membrane but also bring metabolites necessary for cell metabolism and drive out toxins, waste products and solutes that otherwise can c...
The voltage-operated Ca(2+) channels (VOCC), which allow Ca(2+) influx from the extracellular space, are inhibited by anti-hypertensive agents such as verapamil and nifedipine. The Ca(2+) entering from outside into the cell triggers Ca(2+) release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) stores. To refill the depleted Ca(2+) stores in the SR, another t...
Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is known to occur in individuals with diverse diseases. Each disease state has a specific etiology and pathophysiology, and is diagnosed and treated differently. Etiologies for SCD include cardiac arrhythmias, coronary artery disease, congenital coronary artery anomalies, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, arrhythmogenic right...
Although diabetic cardiomyopathy is associated with heart dysfunction and disturbance in cardiac sarcolemmal membrane phospholipid composition, the role of the different phospholipases and their related signaling mechanisms to altered function of the heart in diabetes is not completely understood. Thus, understanding the pathophysiology of cardiova...
Diabetes mellitus increases the risk of cardiomyopathy independently of underlying comorbidities, and heart failure is a major cause of death in diabetic patients. The development of this distinct cardiomyopathy in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes is associated with complex and multifactorial cellular and molecular perturbations. It is widely recogn...
For the heart to produce mechanical force, two cellular components are essential: myofibrils, which are responsible for generating contractile activity, and mitochondria, which provide most of the required energy. Diabetic cardiomyopathy is associated with defects in both mitochondria and myofibrils, indicating that changes in energy production and...
Several lines of epidemiological, experimental, and clinical evidence have demonstrated a correlation between diet and increased risk of developing diabetes-induced cardiovascular complications. The increased consumption of refined and simple carbohydrates, fats, red meats, and low fibre as well as low intake of specific minerals and vitamins have...
Diabetes mellitus causes cardiomyopathy in diabetic patients and is an important and dominant risk factor for congestive heart failure. With the growing prevalence of diabetes in Canada and throughout the world, diabetic cardiomyopathy is a significant public health issue. Diabetic cardiomyopathy has been defined as myocardial dysfunction that occu...
Both intracellular and extracellular proteases including matrix metalloprotease (MMP2 and MMP9) and calpains are well known to play a critical role in the development of cardiac remodeling and heart failure due to hypertension, valvular disorders, myocardial infarction, and dilated cardiomyopathies. These proteolytic enzymes are considered to be ac...
Although several studies have shown impairment of mitochondrial respiratory and oxidative phosphorylation activities in the ischemic-reperfused (I/R) hearts, the mechanisms of these alterations are not fully understood. Recently, we have shown that the I/R-induced changes in mitochondrial function were attenuated by an oxyradical scavenging system...
Background: Diabetes is associated with myocardial electrical instability and prolongation of action potential duration that result in disturbances in the rhythm of the heart.
Th is study was undertaken to examine the role of circulating catecholamines in abnormal cardiac rhythm and contractility during diff erent stages of diabetes.
Diabetes was i...
It is well known that myocardial ischemia–reperfusion (I-R) results in contractile dysfunction due to Ca2+-handling abnormalities in cardiomyocytes; these defects are primarily due to oxidative stress. However, very little is known about the nature and mode of the sarcolemmal changes with respect to phospholipase C (PLC)-related signaling events. I...
Norepinephrine is considered to mediate the cardiomyocyte hypertrophic response through α1-adrenoceptor activation of phospholipase C (PLC). However, the regulation of specific PLC isozyme gene and protein expression as well as activities in normal and hypertrophied myocardium is not completely defined. In this chapter, we provide an overview of th...