M.D. Netherland’s research while affiliated with Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory and other places

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Publications (22)


Mesocosm evaluation of three herbicides on Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) and hybrid watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum ×myriophyllum sibiricum): Developing a predictive assay
  • Article

January 2017

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22 Reads

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10 Citations

M.D. Netherland

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L. Willey

Response of seven aquatic plants to a new arylpicolinate herbicide
  • Article
  • Full-text available

January 2016

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380 Reads

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26 Citations

The herbicide 4-amino-3-chloro-6-(4-chloro-2-fluoro-3-methoxyphenyl)-5-fluoro-pyridine-2-benzyl ester (SX-1552 or XDE-848 BE; proposed ISO common name in review) is a new arylpicolinate herbicide currently under development for weed management in rice (Oryza sativa L.) production, aquatic weed management, and other uses. Greenhouse research was conducted to evaluate the effect of SX-1552 and SX-1552A (an acid metabolite) on seven aquatic plants: alligatorweed [Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb.], Carolina waterhyssop [Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell], fanwort (Cabomba caroliniana Gray), monoecious hydrilla [Hydrilla verticillata (L. f.) Royle], parrotfeather [Myriophyllum aquaticum (Veil.) Verdc], variable watermilfoil (Myriophyllum heterophyllum Michx.), and American waterwillow [Justicia americana (L.) Vahl]. SX-1552 and SX-1552A were applied to these species as an in-water, 4-wk static exposure at rates of 0 to 81 [ig L-1. Fanwort was not controlled by SX-1552 at the rates evaluated, in contrast to the other species tested. Dry weight 50% effective concentration (EC50) values were < 1 μg L-1 SX-1552 for alligatorweed, monoecious hydrilla, parrotfeather, and variable watermilfoil. Carolina waterhyssop and American waterwillow SX-1552 EC50 values were 5.0 and 5.1 μg L-1, respectively. These six species were less sensitive to SX-1552 A with dry weight EC50 values of 1.6 to 77.1 μg L-1. Plant control ratings also indicated that response of the six sensitive species increased from 2 to 4 wk after treatment. Further research is needed on additional species as well as concentration exposure-time determination for the species evaluated here.

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Laboratory and greenhouse response of monoecious hydrilla to fluridone

July 2015

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49 Reads

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9 Citations

Journal of Aquatic Plant Management

Spread of the monoecious biotype of hydrilla {Hydrilla verticillata L.f. Royle) into natural lakes and streams of northern-tier states is of concern to resource managers. In response, multiple eradication programs relying on fluridone have been initiated. Although fluridone controls monoecious hydrilla, limited quantitative information exists on effective concentrations and exposures. I conducted growth-chamber and mesocosm studies to determine sensitivity of hydrilla to various concentrations and exposures of fluridone. Sprouted hydrilla tubers were exposed to fluridone at concentrations ranging from 1.5 to 48 μg L-1 and chlorophyll fluorescence yield of apical shoots measured via a pulse amplitude-modulated fluorometer was reduced by over 85% at fluridone concentrations > 3 μg L-1. Hydrilla was also exposed to fluridone for intermittent periods and compared with plants that received continuous fluridone exposures. Removal of treated plants from fluridone for periods of 3 and 6 d followed by placing plants back in fluridone-treated water produced similar results through a 35-d period. Data confirm that a significant lag period exists between removal from fluridone exposure and recovery of photosynthetic pigments. I evaluated the response of sprouting tubers in greenhouse trials to fluridone at 1.5 to 12 μgL-1. Fluridone at 6 and 12 μg L-1 prevented hydrilla from emerging, whereas concentrations of 1.5 and 3 μg L-1 reduced biomass by 84 to 96%. I also evaluated the response of established hydrilla to fluridone at concentrations of 3 to 48 μg L-1. Although chorophyll fluorescence yield of apical shoots from established plants was similar to that observed in the lab trials, the reduction in biomass was much slower over a 70-d period and was concentration dependent. Monoecious hydrilla is highly sensitive to fluridone and results suggest that control can be achieved via maintenance of low fluridone concentrations. Application of fluridone early in the growing season before shoot emergence or before accumulation of significant biomass is recommended to reduce overall exposure requirements.


Response of water hyacinth and nontarget emergent plants to foliar applications of bispyribac-sodium alone and combination treatments

January 2015

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65 Reads

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3 Citations

Journal of Aquatic Plant Management

The recently registered aquatic herbicide bispyribacsodium (hereafter referred to as bispyribac) is highly efficacious against several noxious aquatic plants including the floating plant water hyacinth [Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms]. Although this acetolactate synthase-inhibiting herbicide is effective at low foliar use rates against water hyacinth, the development of injury symptoms and speed of control is slow compared with the herbicides 2,4-D and diquat. Therefore, mesocosm research was conducted to determine if foliar-applied combinations of bispyribac and low rates of the contact herbicides carfentrazone, diquat, endothall, or flumioxazin could improve and increase the speed of control compared with bispyribac applied alone for water hyacinth control. All foliar bispyribac alone and combination treatments containing low rates of contact herbicides reduced water hyacinth dry weight 62 to 74% of the nontreated control 6 wk after treatment (WAT). All other treatments were similar except for the bispyribac plus diquat and bispyribac plus flumioxazin treatments. There was no efficacy advantage of adding a contact herbicide to the tank mix; however, the combination treatments produced faster visual markers and the treatments containing flumioxazin and carfentrazone resulted in no plant regrowth. In addition, the bispyribac combinations were tested for selectivity against the nontarget emergent plants maidencane (Panicum hemitomon Schult.), jointed spikerush [Eleocharis interstincta (Vahl) Roem & J.A. Schult], club-rush (Eleocharis cellulosa Torr.), giant bulrush [Schoenoplectus californicns (CA. Mey) Palla], and soft-stem bulrush [Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (C.C. Gmel.) Palla]. All bispyribac alone and combination treatments reduced jointed spikerush and soft-stem bulrush shoot dry weight 37 to 69% and 27 to 42%, respectively, 6 WAT. Despite reductions in jointed spikerush and soft-stem bulrush dry weight, all plants were recovering by the conclusion of the experiment. On the contrary, none of the treatments affected maidencane, club-rush, or giant bulrush. These results indicate that bispyribac alone or in combination with contact herbicides may be a suitable alternative for selectively managing water hyacinth.


Response of giant bulrush, water hyacinth, and water lettuce to foliar herbicide applications

July 2014

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169 Reads

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11 Citations

Journal of Aquatic Plant Management

The quatic herbicides 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) and diquat (6,7-dihydrodipyrido[1,2-a : 2′,1′-c]pyrazinediium ion) are commonly used to control the invasive floating plants water hyacinth (Eichhomia crassipes [Mart.] Solms) and water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes L.). Despite the high level of efficacy and rapid injury markers from these foliar-applied herbicides, nontarget injury is common when these herbicides are applied to mixed populations of target and nontarget emergent plant species. Therefore, a series of trials were conducted to find additional herbicides that can selectively control water hyacinth and water lettuce. Giant bulrush (hard-stem bulrush, Schoenoplectus californicus [C.A. Mey] Palla) shoot biomass was not reduced by the aquatic herbicides flumioxazin (2-[7-fluoro-3,4-dihydro- 3-oxo-4-(2-propynyl)-2H-1,4-benzoxazin-6-yl]-4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-1H-isoindole-1, 3[2H]-dione), imazamox (2-[4,5-dihydro-4-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)-5-oxo-1H- imidazol-2-yl]-5-[methoxy-methyl]-3-pyridinecarboxylic acid), and penoxsulam (2-[2,2-difluoroethoxy]-N-(5,8-dimethoxy [1,2,4]triazolo[1,5- c] pyrimidin-2-yl)-6-[trifluoromethyl] benzenesulfonamide) 8 wk after treatment (WAT). Conversely, 2,4-D, diquat, glyphosate (N-[phosphonomethyl]glycine), triclopyr (3,5,6- trichloro-2-pyridinyloxyacetic acid), and 2,4-D plus diquat reduced plant dry weight 49 to 97%. In the water hyacinth screening trial, all herbicide treatments except flumioxazin resulted in 76 to 100% control. Water lettuce dry weight was reduced >61% by all foliar herbicide treatments, with the exception of 2,4-D and triclopyr. Although imazamox and penoxsulam were efficacious against the target species, noticeable injury symptoms were slow to develop (1 to 2 wk to occur), and the acetolactate synthase (ALS) herbicides were much slower in controlling the plants compared to other efficacious herbicides evaluated in the screening trial. These results indicate imazamox and penoxsulam may be suitable for selectively managing water hyacinth and water lettuce. 2,4-D, chemical control, diquat, Eichhornia crassipes, flumioxazin, glyphosate, imazamox, penoxsulam,.



Evaluation of aquatic herbicide activity against crested floating heart

July 2014

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93 Reads

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6 Citations

Journal of Aquatic Plant Management

Crested floating heart [Nymphoides cristata (Roxb.) Kuntze] is a rapidly spreading invasive aquatic plant found in the southeastern United States. This plant exhibits a nymphaeid growth form producing dense mats of overlapping, floating leaves at the end of long stems in water up to 3 m in depth. To date, most operational strategies have relied on aquatic herbicides; however, results have been inconsistent and anecdotal. The objective of this research was to evaluate the majority of registered aquatic herbicides for activity against crested floating heart. A series of small-scale tank experiments was conducted to determine efficacy of the active ingredients: (2,4-dichlorophenoxy)acetic acid (2,4-D), [(3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinyl)oxy]acetic acid (triclopyr), 7-oxabicyclo[2.2.1]heptane-2,3-dicarboxylic acid (endothall), 6,7-dihydrodipyrido[1,2-α:2′,1′-c]pyrazinediium ion (diquat), X,2-dichloro-5-[4-(difluoromethyl)-4,5-dihydro-3-methyl-5-oxo-1H-1,2, 4-triazol-1-yl]-4-fluorobenzenepropa-noic acid (carfentrazone), 2-[7-fluoro-3,4-dihydro-3-oxo-4-(2-propanyl)-2H-1,4-benzoxazin-6-yl]-4,5,6, 7-tetrahydro-1H-isoindole-1,3(2H)-dione (flumioxazin), 2,6-bis[(4,6-dimethoxy-2- pyrimidinyl)oxy]benzoic acid (bispyribac-sodium), N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine (glyphosate), 2-[4,5-dihydro-4-methyl-4-(1-methyle thyl)-5-oxo-1H-imidazol-2-yl] -5-(methoxymethyl)-3-pyridinecarboxylic acid (imazamox), (±)-2-[4,5- dihydro-4-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)-5-oxo-17f-imidazol2-yl]-3-pyridinecarboxylic acid (imazapyr), and 2-(2,2-di-fluoroethoxy)-N-(5,8-dimethoxy[1,2,4]triazolo[1, 5-c]pyrimidin-2-yl)-6-(trifluoromethyl)benzenesulfonamide (penoxsulam) applied via foliar and subsurface applications. Herbicides were applied at concentrations near maximum and half-maximum label use rates in the late spring through summer on plants that had formed a surface canopy. The submersed treatments were evaluated at 24 and 96-h exposure periods. Harvest at 4 wk after treatment indicated that most of the herbicides were not active after either the 24 or 96-h exposure at the highest test rate. In contrast, the liquid subsurface treatments of endothall at 0.25 and 0.5 mg ae L-1 provided complete control after 24 and 96-h exposures, whereas diquat at 0.18 and 0.37 mg ai L-1provided 91 to 95% control after a 96-h exposure. Endothall also provided 24 to 60% biomass reductions after granular applications of 3 mg ae L-1 for a 96-h exposure. Foliar-applied imazamox and imazapyr at 1.2 kg ai ha-1 provided similar levels of control ranging from 81 to 83% control respectively. The other foliar-applied herbicides, including 2,4-D, triclopyr, and glyphosate, were not effective. For herbicides tested as both foliar and submersed applications, it was found that method of application had limited impact on activity and efficacy. Furthermore, aside from the amine salt of endothall, we did not detect a difference between liquid and granular formulations for submersed applications. These data indicate that most of the herbicides tested had limited activity on crested floating heart in our experimental system. These results suggest the amine salt of endothall and diquat as submersed applications and imazapyr and imazamox as foliar applications were the most effective. Further testing is needed to determine optimal timing, use rates, and products for efficacy under field conditions.


Mesocosm evaluation of triclopyr on eurasian watermilfoil and three native submersed species: The role of treatment timing and herbicide exposure

July 2014

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24 Reads

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2 Citations

Journal of Aquatic Plant Management

Early-season recommendations to improve herbicide efficacy and selectivity when targeting Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum L.) have been adopted by many aquatic plant managers in the upper Midwest. To address the role of treatment timing and exposure, two mesocosm studies were conducted on plants established the prior fall to evaluate short- and long-term exposure scenarios when the auxin mimic herbicide triclopyr ([3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinyl)oxy] acetic acid) is used for selective control of Eurasian watermilfoil (EWM). The first study included liquid and granular triclopyr applied at 1.5 mg L -1 in late February and late April 2009 under high-water-exchange conditions (12-h half-life). The second trial included static liquid exposures for early March and late April 2011 treatments at use rates of 0.25, 0.5, and 1.5 mg L-1 and liquid and granular treatments at 1.5 mg L -1 under high-water-exchange conditions (5-h half-life). The second study also included the native species American pondweed (Potamogeton nodosus Poir.), Illinois pondweed (P. illinoensis Morong), and vallisneria (Vallisneria americana Michx.). In the first study, February triclopyr treatments with liquid and granular formulations did not reduce biomass compared to the untreated plants during a May harvest, whereas both April treatments resulted in complete control of EWM. Results of the second trial indicated that treatment timing (March vs. April) was not a significant factor for static treatments (0.25 to 1.5 mg L-1) and near 100% EWM control was achieved. In contrast, under high flow conditions, the March liquid treatment did not differ from the untreated reference plants. The granular treatment reduced EWM by 55% compared to the untreated reference, yet it still increased in biomass by 4-fold compared to the initial biomass. The April treatments were more effective than the March applications under conditions of high water exchange. The native plants evaluated were not impacted by treatment timing, rate, formulation, or exposure scenario. Results demonstrate early-season treatments were effective regardless of treatment timing under extended triclopyr exposure periods; however, in areas of high-water-exchange early treatments of EWM resulted in reduced plant control. Managers can use this information to determine if early- or later-season treatments are warranted based on the likely exposure scenario.


Citations (19)


... It appears that there are inherent differences between Myriophyllum genotypes and exposure to herbicides such as triclopyr, fluridone and 2,4-D are often strain-specific with varied responses Slade et al. 2007;Chorak and Thum 2020;Madsen et al. 2021;Hoff and Thum 2022). Furthermore, it appears that management strategies need to be specific to genotype, as it appears that different hybrid populations respond to management treatments independently (Glomski and Netherland 2010;Berger et al. 2012Berger et al. , 2015Netherland and Willey 2017). These results might suggest that there is a genetically-specific response mechanism taking place across these strains and more research is necessary. ...

Reference:

Differential photosynthetic yield across a wide range of temperatures for Northern and invasive Watermilfoils
Mesocosm evaluation of three herbicides on Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) and hybrid watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum ×myriophyllum sibiricum): Developing a predictive assay
  • Citing Article
  • January 2017

... Thus, herbicide control is the primary management method for CFH and related FLAV species. Greenhouse/tank studies of herbicide efficacy on CFH have been conducted and yielded promising results [18][19][20]; however, field trials were necessary to replicate these successful, controlled studies in more challenging, real-world environments. ...

Impact of herbicide retention time on the efficacy of foliar treatments for control of crested floating heart
  • Citing Article
  • January 2016

... Submersed herbicide treatments may better inhibit alligatorweed regrowth because the herbicide comes into direct contact with the stolons and adventitious roots (Haller 2021). One study tested submersed treatments of florpyrauxifen-benzyl on seven aquatic plants and saw significant biomass reduction of alligatorweed (Richardson et al. 2016). However, that study was brief (four weeks) and no other chemistries have been tested on alligatorweed as a submersed treatment (Richardson et al. 2016). ...

Response of seven aquatic plants to a new arylpicolinate herbicide

... Thus, herbicide control is the primary management method for CFH and related FLAV species. Greenhouse/tank studies of herbicide efficacy on CFH have been conducted and yielded promising results [18][19][20]; however, field trials were necessary to replicate these successful, controlled studies in more challenging, real-world environments. ...

The efficacy of protox-inhibiting herbicides alone and in combination with glyphosate to control crested floating heart
  • Citing Article
  • July 2014

Journal of Aquatic Plant Management

... It appears that there are inherent differences between Myriophyllum genotypes and exposure to herbicides such as triclopyr, fluridone and 2,4-D are often strain-specific with varied responses Slade et al. 2007;Chorak and Thum 2020;Madsen et al. 2021;Hoff and Thum 2022). Furthermore, it appears that management strategies need to be specific to genotype, as it appears that different hybrid populations respond to management treatments independently (Glomski and Netherland 2010;Berger et al. 2012Berger et al. , 2015Netherland and Willey 2017). These results might suggest that there is a genetically-specific response mechanism taking place across these strains and more research is necessary. ...

Response of Eurasian and hybrid watermilfoil to low use rates and extended exposures of 2,4-D and triclopyr
  • Citing Article
  • January 2010

Journal of Aquatic Plant Management

... In Brazil, the chemical control of aquatic macrophytes is regulated by Conama Resolution No. 467. [7] Some herbicides have been successfully tested to control aquatic plants, such as 2,4-D, [8] penoxsulam, imazamox, [9] diquat, [10] imazapyr, and glyphosate. [11,12] The efficacy of chemical control and the possible effects of herbicides on the environment can be evaluated by using outdoor experimental units (water tanks) called mesocosms. ...

Response of giant bulrush, water hyacinth, and water lettuce to foliar herbicide applications
  • Citing Article
  • July 2014

Journal of Aquatic Plant Management

... One problematic aquatic weed is water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes), often controlled using herbicides. Chemical compounds that can act as herbicide such as glyphosate, diquat, bispyribac sodium, flumioxazin and imazamox can reduce water lettuce biomass by more than 99 percent (Glomski & Mudge, 2013;Mudge & Netherland, 2014). The convenience factor is one reason for resorting to hazardous chemicals due to their quick and lethal results. ...

Response of invasive floating plants and nontarget emergent plants to foliar applications of imazamox and penoxsulam
  • Citing Article
  • January 2014

Journal of Aquatic Plant Management

... The most widely used products include diquat, endothall, fluridone, and 2,4 D, which have been used for control over decades, and so their behaviour in aquatic systems is well known, allowing for improved management of submerged species. Nonetheless, overreliance on certain herbicides can lead to weed resistance; for example, H. verticillata has developed resistance to fluridone, the mainstay of its control in the southern USA (Netherland 2011). As with herbicidal control of floating plants, frequent reapplication is required to maintain control as regeneration from untreated plants and fragments may occur. ...

Comparative susceptibility of f luridone resistant and susceptible hydrilla to four ALS inhibiting herbicides under laboratory and greenhouse conditions
  • Citing Article
  • July 2011

Journal of Aquatic Plant Management

... 9-10]; Mead et al. [2012, p. 236]). This method is commonly used in studies of invasive aquatic plants (e.g., Gannon et al. 2022;Parks et al. 2016;Thum et al. 2012;Wersal et al. 2006Wersal et al. , 2010 but to date has only rarely been used in studies of invasive terrestrial plants (for an example, see Rice et al. 2020). As we did for studies that follow the fate of marked plants, we will briefly describe how point intercept surveys are conducted so the link between the type of data produced and the corresponding statistical methods suggested in a later section will be clear. ...

Field and laboratory documentation of reduced fluridone sensitivity of a hybrid watermilfoil biotype (Myriophyllum spicatum x Myriophyllum sibiricum)
  • Citing Article
  • July 2012

Journal of Aquatic Plant Management

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P.J. Hausler

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M.D. Netherland

... Because of its relative safety, glyphosate is one of only nine synthetic herbicides approved for use in aquatic sites in the U.S.A. (Getsinger et al., 2005). Glyphosate was not found to bioaccumulate, biomagnify, or persist in an available form in the environment (Solomon and Thompson, 2003). ...

Aquatic Herbicide Registration New Model
  • Citing Article
  • September 2011

ACS Symposium Series